P1C Tech/memory/bias
The following activity asks you to read two samples of a Paper 1, Section C response for the following question: Discuss bias in the study of the effect of one or more environmental factors in learning and cognition. For each of the responses, award marks using the Paper 1C rubric. In addition to awarding marks, think about how the response could be improved.
After awarding marks and deciding on the justification of your marking, click the “hidden eye” to see comments.
Subscriber's contribution
Thank you to Andrew Farmer from Brains International School Maria Lombillo in Madrid, Spain, for these sample responses.
Assessment criteria
| 1 - 3 | The response indicates little understanding of the demands of the question. Knowledge and understanding of the area of study or concept(s) are very limited and contain inaccuracies. The response is descriptive. Any analysis present is superficial or incoherent. Links between the area of study and concept are not stated, or they are not relevant. Where a conclusion is included, this is very superficial or is not consistent with the rest of the response. Psychological terminology is not used or is consistently used inappropriately. Points are frequently inaccurate and unclear. |
| 4 - 6 | The response indicates some understanding of the demands of the question. Relevant knowledge and understanding of the area of study or concept(s) are described. There is limited analysis present and overall the response is more descriptive than it is analytical. Links between the area of study and concept are stated, and they are partly relevant. A simplistic conclusion is included. Psychological terminology is used, but often inappropriately. Points are frequently imprecise or vague. |
| 7 - 9 | The response indicates understanding of the demands of the question, but these demands are only partially addressed. Relevant knowledge and understanding of the area of study or concept(s) are partly explained. The response contains analysis, although this analysis lacks development. Links between the area of study and concept are explained, and they are partly relevant. A conclusion is included, but it is not always consistent with the arguments presented. Psychological terminology is used sometimes appropriately. Relevant points are made, but lack accuracy and development. |
| 10 - 12 | The demands of the question are addressed. Relevant knowledge and understanding of the area of study and concept(s) are mostly explained. The response contains critical analysis, although this analysis lacks development. Links between the area of study and concept are included and explained. The response argues to a conclusion that is consistent with the arguments presented. Psychological terminology is used, mostly appropriately. Points made are relevant and accurate but lack detail. |
| 13 - 15 | The demands of the question are addressed. Relevant knowledge and understanding of the area of study and concept(s) are fully explained. The response contains well-developed critical analysis. Links between the area of study and concept are included throughout the response and fully explained. The response argues to a reasoned and clearly stated conclusion that is consistent with the arguments presented. There is accurate and precise use of psychological terminology. Points are relevant, accurate and detailed. |
Sample response 1
As many schools use mobile technology in classes and almost all students have their own devices, it’s important to understand the impact of technology on learning and cognition, particularly memory. Accordingly, psychologists are currently doing research into what effect technology has on memory. However, bias in the studies may affect the validity of their findings, so it’s important to understand these limitations. I will discuss how three types of bias may affect the study of technology on memory: researcher bias, sampling bias, and temporal bias.
Researcher bias occurs whenever a researcher has a particular interest that may affect the focus of their research or their conduct in it. For example, in an experiment, researchers might pay more attention to individuals who are more attractive, more personable, or younger than others. Alternatively, they may pay more attention to participants who they know are in the experimental condition, expecting to see these individuals perform differently from control. This problem can be solved by following a standardised procedure that aims to treat all participants equally and using a double-blind procedure that ensures researchers don’t know which condition of the IV participants are in, and therefore cannot treat them differently.
A different kind of researcher bias might occur when researchers have some link to a technology product or service e.g. they are the creator of an app. While this does not mean that researchers with technology background cannot conduct such research, they should be open about their links to the product to avoid a conflict of interest.
Method triangulation could be used to avoid researcher bias. This refers to using multiple methods to investigate a single psychological phenomenon, e.g. running an experiment and conducting semi-structured interviews. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data allows the researcher to be sure their findings do not depend solely on the research method chosen. When conducting qualitative research, using multiple researchers also allows you to calculate an inter-rater reliability, which is a score between 0 and 1 that indicates the extent to which two independent observers agree about an observation.
Sampling bias occurs when the sample chosen for a study does not fully represent the target population for some reason. This could occur when researchers use volunteer samples, as volunteers for studies on the effect of technology are likely to attract a disproportionate number of participants with an interest in technology. In a longitudinal study, these individuals are more likely to commit to using a technological product than someone without such an interest. While this might solve the problem of attrition, the loss of participants during a study, it tends to bias the sample in the direction of people interested in technology.
More generally, studies into the effect of technology tend to use WEIRD samples, that is, individuals who are western, educated, and come from industrialised, rich and democratic societies. By definition, this limits the generalisability of the findings to individuals who do not meet these criteria.
Finally, the fast pace of change in technology means studies into its effect on memory may lack temporal validity, that is to say, the findings quickly become out of date. Studies from 5-10 years ago conducted on the use of laptop computers may not apply to participants who mostly use mobile devices. The rapid developments in AI are happening too quickly for researchers to keep up. This is not an argument for not doing such research, but an important point to keep in mind when considering research findings.
Research into the effect of technology on memory is essential, but subject to a number of biases. Careful planning is the key to avoiding the problems of researcher bias and sampling bias; psychologist must be prepared to seek samples outside of universities, for example making links with state schools to find more diverse samples. The problem of temporal validity may be inevitable, but can be solved through doing regular research.
644 words
Knowledge and understanding: The response is problematic in that it does not explain any effects of technology on cognition, it only addresses bias. This ends up being a rather generic response and would not earn more than mid-markband. (7 - 9)
Critical analysis: There is some good explanation of bias in research, and there are some links to the area of study. However, there are also some very generic comments - for example, the use of WEIRD samples. It would have been better to explicitly address which aspects of WEIRD sampling may affect the research and why. As there is no example of an effect of the environmental factor (technology), it is difficult to determine the relevance of the critical analysis. The conclusions are relevant. (7 - 9)
Use of terminology: Terminology is used effectively and it is mostly unpacked/explained. (10 - 12)
Total marks: 9
Sample response 2
Given the widespread use of technology in schools and at home, psychologists are conducting research to understand the impact technology has on learning, specifically memory. However, bias in these studies may affect the validity of their findings. I will discuss three types of bias in this essay: researcher bias, sampling bias, and participant bias.
Cognitive load theory (CLT) explains one way in which technology may have a negative effect on memory. Due to the limited capacity of working memory, we quickly experience cognitive load, the overload of working memory that happens when we try to process information that exceeds that limit. Extraneous cognitive load is a type of cognitive load external to the difficulty of the task. CLT predicts that reducing extrinsic cognitive load should make it easier to process information in working memory and, as a result, improve long-term memory. However, constant interruptions from notifications or replying to messages when studying are all ways in which technology can increase extrinsic cognitive load.
Researcher bias occurs whenever a researcher has a particular interest that may affect the focus of their research or their conduct in it. For example, in an experiment, researchers might focus more on mistakes participants make while using technology, rather than noting how technology may have improved performance. They may notice behaviors that confirm their hypothesis and discount information that seems not to. This problem can be solved by following a standardised procedure that treats all participants equally and using a double-blind procedure that ensures researchers don’t know which condition of the IV participants are in and therefore cannot treat them differently.
Psychologists also do qualitative research, such as interviews to ask people how they feel that technology helps or hurts their learning. Here, researcher bias may result in leading questions in the interview schedule a researcher writes, or their thematic analysis of the findings. In both cases, researcher triangulation can help avoid bias. This refers to having other researchers independently review the questions that will be asked or the findings. This might include calculating inter-rater reliability, which is a score between 0 and 1 that reflects the extent to which two independent observers agree about their interpretation of the findings. In both cases, this reduces the possibility of a single researcher’s biases affecting the findings.
Method triangulation could be used to avoid researcher bias. This refers to using multiple methods to investigate a single psychological phenomenon, e.g. running an experiment and conducting semi-structured interviews. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data allows the researcher to be sure their findings do not depend solely on the research method chosen.
Sampling bias occurs when the sample chosen for a study does not fully represent the target population for some reason. This could occur when researchers use volunteer samples, as volunteers for studies on the effect of technology are likely to attract participants with more experience with technology. It could be that those who use technology more find that it helps their learning, and this is why they continue to use it. Those who find it hinders their learning may not use it and may not volunteer to be in the sample. More generally, studies into the effect of technology tend to use WEIRD samples, that is, individuals who are Western, educated, and come from industrialised, rich, and democratic societies. This limits the generalizability of the findings to individuals who do not meet these criteria.
Participant bias could occur when participants over or underestimate the amount of time they spend using technology due to recall bias. On the other hand, the social desirability bias might prompt participants to downplay their use of technology or exaggerate the extent to which they followed the instructions in a longitudinal study. These problems occur when psychologists use self-report techniques.
These biases could be avoided by using more objective measures of time spent on technology, such as the screen time apps present on many phones. It may be impossible to completely remove all biases from research into the impact of technology on memory, but with careful planning, psychologists can reduce and manage the major impact of these biases.
691 words
Knowledge and understanding: Cognitive load is described, but it is then absent for the rest of the response. The effect should be included throughout the response. There are clear definitions of the different types of bias. (10 - 12 marks)
Critical analysis: The response explains how each bias affects the findings and suggests strategies to reduce bias. Some points are not well-explained. Which aspects of WEIRD sampling are a problem? How is method triangulation linked to researcher bias? The conclusion introduces new ideas (using objective measures) that were not discussed in the essay itself. (10 - 12)
Use of terminology: Psychological terminology is used effectively and is unpacked (explained) in most cases. (13 - 15)
Total marks: 12 marks