Continuous theories suggest that development is a gradual, incremental process. There are no clear-cut stages; cognitive development occurs through the continuous accumulation of skills and knowledge over time. There is no abrupt shift; instead, development occurs in small steps.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory suggests that a child’s cognitive development is based on interacting with others to develop cultural tools to understand the world.

Cultural tools should be understood as the culture's implicit and explicit rules or norms. Knowledge is transferred via imitation, direct instructions, or collaborative learning. Experiences with other people become internalized and form the child's mental representation of the world.

Vygotsky argued that children develop at different ages through learning with the help of a more knowledgeable other [MKO]; this person is often a teacher, parent, or older sibling, but it could also be a more knowledgeable peer. The child seeks to understand the tutor's actions or instructions and internalizes the information. Therefore, progression is socially gained and not simply because of biological readiness. Contrary to Piaget, Vygotsky believed that learning tends to precede development.

An important element in sociocultural theory is the concept of the zone of proximal development, which refers to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a more knowledgeable other.  A child can increase in competence if he or she receives assistance to perform a task just slightly beyond his or her current ability. This is called scaffolding. Successful scaffolding can change the child’s level of performance on a particular task. Vygotsky's theory focuses on the continual learning process rather than achievements that indicate a move to the next stage.

Finally, Vygotsky also believed in the importance of play. He said that play allows children to take on roles they would normally not be able to perform in real life, requiring them to solve problems and strategize about theoretical situations. This helps them to extend their cognitive abilities.

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Suggested answers:

• Cultural bias: Studies conducted primarily in Western contexts may overestimate the benefits of collaborative learning for students from individualistic cultures but fail to consider how students from collectivist cultures might naturally thrive in such settings.
• Selection bias: A study focusing on high-achieving students might conclude that collaborative learning improves academic outcomes without accounting for the challenges faced by struggling, introverted, or less confident students in group settings.
• Publication bias: Positive findings about collaborative learning are more likely to be published than neutral or negative ones.
• Measurement Bias: The choice of how to measure "success" may be biased. Nichols measured the "level of achievement" and motivation but did not report if all members were equally active in learning. Also, male students may dominate discussions in mixed-gender groups, or students with higher social status might overshadow quieter group members.

Language and development

One of the great developmental markers is the internalization of language. Vygotsky argued that this is necessary for thinking and problem-solving.

Private speech is when people talk aloud to themselves. It is a means for children to plan activities and strategies. Studies have found that children who engage in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent than children who do not use it. For example, Winsler et al. (2003) videotaped 32 three and four-year-old children doing problem-solving tasks - some in the lab and some in their preschool classroom. They also carried out interviews and surveys with the parents and teachers. They observed that children's private speech patterns were generally stable across tasks and over time. They also found that based on the reports of the teachers and parents, those children who engaged in high levels of private speech had more highly developed social skills.

Watch Roxanne, age 4 1/2, engage in private speech.

From about the age of three to seven, children engage in egocentric speech. The child's talk is a monologue; it is not intended to be a communicative form of speech. For example, if a child tries to complete a puzzle, she might say, "I need first to find a blue one. Here is a blue one. It should go near another blue one." She is not necessarily communicating with anyone; she is simply stating these directions for herself.  This self-talk guides a child through a task.

Inner speech in preschool children refers to the process by which children begin to talk to themselves internally rather than out loud to guide their thoughts and actions. Vygotsky argued that through repeated social interactions, children internalize dialogues and transform them into tools for independent thinking.

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Students will have different thoughts on this.

The Silent Problem-Solving Task is often considered the most direct way to study inner speech because it isolates its role in problem-solving. However, for younger children who are still developing their self-regulatory abilities, combining methods (e.g., controlled observation with silent problem-solving) might be the best approach. The Dual Task Method requires a highly controlled environment and often requires some training of the child to learn how to do it.

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