Change
One of psychology's main goals is changing people's habits and improving mental and physical health. In addition, as new knowledge becomes available, psychologists change their theories and rethink their treatment strategies.
At the same time, change is a great debate in psychology. Different perspectives exist on the extent to which we can change our behavior. Some perspectives are highly deterministic, arguing that we have little control over our behavior. In contrast, others believe we can change if we have the motivation and resources.
Free will and determinism
One of the great debates in psychology is the extent to which we have free will over our behavior versus whether behaviors are determined. The concept of agency refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently, make choices, and exert control over their actions and decisions. It is rooted in the idea that humans actively shape their lives rather than being passive recipients of external influences. Agency involves self-awareness, intentionality, decision-making, and the ability to influence one’s environment.
A person’s perceived level of agency may differ from their actual ability to effect change. Perception is important because individuals who believe they have control over their environment are more likely to engage in proactive behaviors.
The locus of control refers to how individuals perceive their control over events in their lives. People with an internal locus of control believe they have control over the outcomes of their actions. They think their efforts, skills, and decisions influence their life events. For example, they might attribute their success on a test to their hard work and study habits. This belief can lead to greater motivation and a proactive approach to life.
People with an external locus of control feel that external factors—such as luck, fate, or other people—are primarily responsible for the outcomes in their lives. They may attribute success or failure to circumstances beyond their control, such as luck or the actions of others. This perspective can sometimes result in a sense of helplessness when facing challenges.
Intentionality: Agency involves purposeful, goal-directed actions. Behavior is motivated by specific goals or desired outcomes.
Self-regulation: Individuals exercise agency by regulating their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This involves planning, monitoring, and adjusting actions to achieve goals.
Self-efficacy: People with a strong sense of agency believe in their ability to execute actions to achieve specific outcomes. When individuals believe they can achieve something, they are more likely to take action toward that goal.
Responsibility: Agency also involves assuming responsibility for one’s actions, including the consequences (positive or negative) of decisions.
Measurement
Several tests can be given to measure one's locus of control. Julian Rotter's Locus of Control Scale (LCS) is the most common test. The test consists of 29 questions that measure the degree to which the individual interprets events as a result of their own actions or external factors.
Read the following four example questions from a similar test. The whole test may be found here.
For each of the following questions, participants are asked to rate their response on a Likert scale from Disagree to Agree. Do you think that these questions are good measures of locus of control? Why or why not?
Question 1. Sometimes, when you face a tough decision, you might as well flip a coin.
Question 2. People can overcome a rough childhood if they work hard.
Question 3. I don't like to plan too far ahead because you never know what will happen.
Question 4. Most of the time, in most areas of my life, I feel like I am in control.
Teacher only boxWhen students discuss the questions, they may want to discuss:
- What is meant by a tough decision? Not everyone would think of the same level of "toughness."
- What does it mean to "overcome a rough childhood?" A rough childhood could be abuse, domestic violence, or poverty. Those are different types of variables.
- It is difficult to determine extent - so "most of the time" or "in most areas of my life," - these values are difficult to determine.
Psychologists who adopt a determinist approach argue that all behavior has a cause and is predictable. Free will is an illusion, and our behavior is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.
Biological determinism argues that human behavior is shaped primarily by biological factors, such as genetics and chemical messengers. This perspective suggests that inherited traits and evolutionary pressures dictate how people think, feel, and act. For example, aggression could be seen as a product of genetics, brain structures (like the amygdala), or hormonal influences like testosterone, implying a strong biological basis for the behavior. As people have a predisposition to certain behaviors and mental illness, there is a limited possibility for them to control their behavior.
Environmental determinism asserts that an individual’s behavior is shaped primarily by external factors, particularly their environment, upbringing, and social context. For example, suppose a child grows up in an environment where aggressive behavior is modeled and rewarded. In that case, they may learn to exhibit aggression, not because of genetic predisposition but due to environmental reinforcement.
Soft determinism holds that human behavior is influenced by both deterministic factors (biological and environmental) and free will. It suggests that while many of our actions are shaped by underlying causes, individuals can still make choices and act with a degree of autonomy. This perspective finds a middle ground between strict determinism (which denies free will) and complete free will. Soft determinists argue that behaviors may have causes, but humans can reason, reflect, and make informed choices in response to these influences. For example, a person with a genetic predisposition to anxiety might still manage their anxiety through therapy or lifestyle changes, showing a blend of determinism and personal agency.
Determinism, free will, and the legal system
Kenneth Parks was a 23-year-old married man with a young daughter. He had a history of severe sleepwalking since childhood. Around the time of the story, he was experiencing significant stress due to financial problems, gambling debts, and the loss of his job.
In the early hours of May 23, 1987, Parks got out of bed while still asleep and drove about 23 kilometers (14 miles) from his home to his in-laws' home. He entered their house and attacked his mother-in-law, Barbara Woods, with a tire iron and a knife, ultimately killing her. He also assaulted his father-in-law, Dennis Woods, who survived the attack despite severe injuries.
Parks then drove to a nearby police station, covered in blood, and turned himself in. He was still in a state of confusion and reportedly told officers, “I think I killed some people.”
Parks' defense team argued that he was sleepwalking during the incident, making him unaware of his actions.
The defense presented evidence that Parks had a history of sleepwalking. They argued that his actions on that night were a result of "non-insane automatism"—a legal defense that means he was not conscious of his actions and could not be held criminally responsible.
The prosecution, on the other hand, argued that the violent nature of the attack suggested premeditation and that sleepwalking could not fully explain the brutality of the crime.
After hearing testimony from sleep experts and reviewing evidence, the jury found Parks not guilty. The court ruled that he lacked intent or awareness of his actions due to his sleepwalking. The judge concluded that he was not criminally responsible because he had no control over his actions.
Question
Do you agree with the court's findings? Do you believe that Parks had no control over his behavior? Is there something he could have done to prevent this from happening?
Barriers to change
Barriers to behavioral change make it difficult for individuals to change their habits, actions, or mindsets. These can be internal, like psychological or emotional resistance, or external, like environmental or social influences.
Change often comes with uncertainty, and fear of what the change might bring can prevent action. This could include fear of failure, social judgment, or negative consequences.
What are the barriers to change when it comes to exercising?
Change requires effort and can be challenging to sustain without an intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. Motivation may decrease if the perceived benefits of change do not outweigh the effort.
Social pressure, family expectations, and cultural norms can create barriers. If the desired change goes against the prevailing norms or if one lacks support from one’s social circle, it can be harder to adopt new behaviors.
A lack of time, money, or other resources can make change difficult. For instance, adopting a healthier lifestyle might require time for exercise or money for healthier food options. Physical or structural barriers in the environment can prevent change. For example, a lack of safe places to exercise in one’s community can hinder efforts to adopt healthier eating behaviors.
If individuals do not believe they can make a change, they are less likely to try. Self-efficacy, or the belief in one’s ability to succeed, is crucial for sustained behavioral change.
Reflecting on barriers to change
George likes to drink wine. He drinks two to three glasses of wine per evening with his meal, far exceeding the recommended 12 units per week. He needs to change his behavior. What would be potential barriers to change?
Consider both internal and external barriers to change.
Teacher only boxThere are several potential barriers to changing George's behavior.
Internal barriers:
- Drinking wine may be a deeply ingrained habit. Habits can be difficult to change because they often occur automatically.
- George might not fully understand the risks associated with exceeding the recommended alcohol limits, or he may feel that the risks are irrelevant to him.
- If George has been drinking two to three glasses of wine daily for a long time, his body may have developed a mild physical dependence on alcohol.
External barriers:
- If George keeps wine easily accessible at home, it can be more tempting to continue his current drinking pattern. The convenience of having it readily available can make cutting back more difficult.
- If George's social environment encourages drinking, such as friends or family who drink with dinner, he may find it difficult to change without feeling socially isolated or pressured.
Agency and motivation
Barriers to change
Biological determinism
Development and maturation
Effectiveness of health campaigns
Effectiveness of treatment
Environmental determinism
Intervention and prevention strategies
Prevalence of disorders over time
Prevalence of health problems over time
Use of longitudinal designs
Checking for understanding
Which of the following is true about the debate in psychology regarding change?
The debate in psychology centers on the extent to which individuals can change their behavior, considering both deterministic and free will perspectives.
What does an internal locus of control indicate?
People with an internal locus of control believe that their actions and decisions directly impact their life's outcomes.
Which is a characteristic of agency?
Intentionality, or having purposeful actions toward achieving specific goals, is a key feature of agency.
This concept suggests that behavior is influenced by biological and environmental factors, but individuals still possess some degree of choice and autonomy
Soft determinism argues that behavior is influenced by both deterministic factors and free will.
Which example reflects an external barrier to change?
Time constraints are an external barrier that can make it difficult for individuals to change their habits.
How does a belief in free will influence behavior?
When individuals believe they have control over their environment (a sense of free will), they are more likely to engage in proactive behaviors.