7. Ottoman Empire and First World War
On 2 November 1914, the Ottomans entered the war and on 14 November, the Sultan officially declared Holy War, with the aim of obtaining the support of the Muslim population in the French and British colonies as well as Russia's Central Asian regions. The war would continue until the armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918 and it would lead to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.
Why did the Ottoman Empire enter the First World War on the side of Germany?
What were the main campaigns in the Ottoman war?
How far did the Arab revolt undermined the Ottoman war campaigns?
Starter
To review the key events in the Ottoman Empire leading up to the 1914, continue watching the following documentary from 20:05 minutes to the end. Answer the questions below (click on the eye).
Questions:
- Which two European powers had invested in trade with the Ottomans, railways and mines?
- What rights were given to Europeans in the 19th century?
- Why did Abdul Hamid give these concessions to Europeans?
- Which African territory did the French invade, after Algeria, in 1881?
- Which territory did Britain occupy in 1882?
- Which European leader had a state visit to Istanbul in 1889?
- What advantage does historian Historian Edhem suggest the Germans had over other European powers in relation to the Ottomans?
- What did Kaiser Wilhelm II declare in Damascus?
- What does historian Eugene L Rogan suggest the Ottomans were determined was not repeated in the Arab world?
- Why did the Sultan promote his role as a Caliph, or spiritual leader?
- Which Christian minority rebelled in 1894 in eastern Anatolia?
- How many were killed in reprisals out of a population of 500,000?
- Which three Balkan states claimed Ottoman Macedonia where violence escalated between 1905-06?
- When did officers in the Ottoman army revolt?
- These members of the Committee of Union and Progress proclaimed which national identity?
- By 23rd July, what was Abdul Hamid forced to reinstate?
- What was the ‘paradox’ for the Young Turks?
- Bulgaria declared independence in 1908 at the same time as Austria-Hungary annexed which territory?
- The Italian occupation in 1911 of which Ottoman territory triggered war in the Balkans in 1912?
- What happened after the Ottoman defeat?
1. Why did the Ottoman Empire enter the First World War on the side of Germany?
'[the decision of the Ottomans to enter the First World War on the side of Germany] was the most significant in the history of the modern Middle East and the first move in its remaking'.
Historian, Avi Shlaim
Following the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, Austria invaded Serbia thereby triggering a series of events which led to the major powers going to war in Europe. The two alliance systems, which had developed over the previous years, now found themselves at war; the alliance of the Triple Entente- Britain. France, Russia was fighting against the Central Powers - Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The Ottoman Empire remained divided as to which side it should join.
Talat Pasha wrote in his memoirs: 'Turkey needed to join one of the country groups so that it could organize its domestic administration, strengthen and maintain its commerce and industry, expand its railroads, in short to survive and to preserve its existence.'
In pairs or groups, consider the pros and cons for the Ottoman Empire in joining (a) the Central Powers and (b) the Entente Powers
Consider previous events in the Balkans, its main concerns and which Alliance might best be able to fulfil the aims stated by Talat Pasha.
Watch the following video
- List the reasons why Enver Pasha wanted an alliance with Germany at the start of the the First World War
- List the reasons why Talat Pasha wanted to join the Entente Powers
- What factors pushed them to choose the Central Powers over the Entente?
- What was the significance of Russia in this decision?
Teacher only boxThis video gives more detail on the reason for the German-Ottoman Alliance
As you will have seen from the video above, there were some in the government who wished to use the war as an opportunity to strike at Russia - though in fact the majority of CUP leaders favoured neutrality. However, it was Enver Pasha who pushed the decision towards joining Germany.
Why did the Ottomans end up joining the war on the side of Germany?
- An attempt by Cemel, a Francophil, to join the Triple Entente by negotiating with France had come to nothing. Cemel had asked for protection against Russia in return for joining the Entente but such an assurance had not been forthcoming as France did not want to jeopardize its alliance with Russia. Similarly, Britain had turned down the offer of a Turkish alliance in 1913. In addition the British government, 3 days after declaring war on Germany, requisitioned two dreadnoughts commissioned by the Ottomans. This was treated as a national humiliation in Turkey and ruled out the possibility of any accord between Britain and the Ottoman Empire.
- There was pro-German sentiment in the Ottoman Army, at least among its officers reflecting the close professional contact between the Ottoman and German officer corps. Since the first German military mission to the Ottoman Army after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–8, German officers had often been attached to the army in an advisory or training role and some of the best Ottoman officers had attended staff colleges in Germany. Ottoman officers admired the German Army’s professionalism and traditions, and, like many foreign observers at the time, were convinced that it was the best in the world.
- Although the German military had at first been reluctant to have an alliance with the Ottomans, believing that they would be more of a liability than an ally in both diplomatic and military terms, the Kaiser was in favour of keeping the Ottomans as allies. Thus by 27 July the Germans and Ottomans had worked out a secret defensive alliance against Russia. Crucially, Germany pledged to protect the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire against Russian ambitions
- When two German ships being chased by the British, took refuge in Turkish waters, the Ottomans offered protection. In fact Enver Pasha, without the authorisation of his government, had specifically requested the dispatch of the German warships to Ottoman waters before concluding the defensive alliance with Germany as this would compensate for the loss of the dreadnoughts already requisitioned by Britain; this would tip the naval balance of power with Russia in the Black Sea. The Germans agreed knowing that this would draw Turkey into the war, thus opening up a new front with Russia
- Before finally agreeing to shelter the German ships, the Prime Minister, Said Halim demanded key territorial gains for the Ottomans in the event of the Central Powers winning - the three provinces lost in 1878. They also insisted that the Central Powers ensure that all Ottoman territory be freed of occupying troops before any peace treaty was made, and that would receive 'an appropriate war indemnity' for its efforts. He also received assurances that Bulgaria and Romania would not threaten Turkey during the war.
What further reason for an alliance with Germany is given in this quote by Cemal Pasha?
Germany’s interests can only be protected if Turkey is strong. Germany cannot capture Turkey as a colony. Neither its geographical position nor the means it has would make that possible. This is why Germany does not want Turkey, which offers a market to be linked to its own, to be partitioned by the Entente powers. The moment when Turkey disappears, Germany would find itself trapped inside the steel ring of the Entente. The only way for Germany to prevent is to make sure that Turkey remains intact. (Cemal Pasha)
Using the information above, and in the video, discuss in pairs the significance of each of the following factors in determining the Ottoman Empire's decision to sign an agreement with Germany rather than the Entente Powers:
- the threat of Russia
- the role of Enver Pasha
- the actions of the Entente Powers
- the actions of Germany
- the need to preserve the Ottoman Empire
By August, 1914, the Ottomans had thus successfully secured an alliance with a major power to protect themselves from Russian aggression, had secured warships which put them in a superior naval position in the Aegean and Black Sea and had so far kept themselves out of actually fighting.
The Germans were very keen to get the Ottomans to open up another front; however the Young Turks were committed to keeping the Ottoman Empire out of the war for as long as possible - even going to the extent of going against the Germans and seeking a defensive alliance with the Russians. This however was rejected by the Russians, and the Ottomans had to revert to their special relationship with the Central Powers.
Finally, with the Germans putting increasing pressure on the Ottomans to join the war immediately, Enver Pasha offered an immediate naval attack on Russia in return for financial support. The Germans quickly agreed.
On 25 October 1914, without consulting any of his ministerial colleagues, he ordered Admiral Souchon to take the Ottoman fleet, including the German-crewed ships, into the Black Sea to attack the Russians. The fleet carried out surprise raids on Theodosia, Novorossisk, Odessa and Sevastopol, sinking a Russian minelayer, a gunboat and 14 civilian ships.
On 2 November, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. France and the British Empire, Russia’s wartime allies, followed suit on the 5th.
The Ottoman Empire now raised the banner of jihad; on 14 November, the call for holy war was announced.
What, according to this source, was the miscalculation made by the Ottomans in their decision to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers?
In retrospect, the decision to enter the war proved to be a miscalculation on the part of the Ottomans because it was based on the belief that the conflict was limited to Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Backed by the Germans and the Austro-Hungarians a war against Russia (without the participation of Britain and France) would be a short and an easy victory. Defeating Russia would rid the Ottomans of a hostile neighbour and yield them territorial gains in the Caucasus and the Balkans. Instead, the war was long, the adversaries more numerous and it was to become the final disintegration of the Ottoman Empire'.
Mariam Habibi, History of Europe and the Middle East, OUP, 2010, pg 177
Ottoman soldiers at Gallipoli
The sheer size of the Ottoman Empire and its extensive borders made the Ottoman army extremely vulnerable. Immediately after the declaration of war, they were attacked both by the British in the Persian Gulf region and the Russians in the Caucasus. The Ottoman army nevertheless performed more effectively than anticipated and managed to engage the British and the Russian forces in the region throughout the war. They were involved in several fronts: in the Balkans, along the Middle East Front - where the Gallipoli campaign took place, and in the Caucasus Campaign.
Divide the class into groups. Each group should research one of the key campaigns in which the Ottomans were involved:
- The Caucasus Campaign
- Gallipoli Campaign
- Sinai and Palestinian Campaign
- Mesopotamian Campaign
They should also prepare a presentation to the rest of the class.
The presentation should include:
- maps to show the campaigns
- the nature of the fighting
- successes of the Ottomans
- failures/difficulties faced
- the outcome of the campaign and impact on the Ottomans
This webpage is a good starting point for introducing the campaigns
And this page has more detail on each of the campaigns
One of the most notorious episodes of the war took place in the Caucusus region.
By January 1915, the defeat of the Ottoman army in the Caucasus exposed the eastern parts of the country to more Russian attacks. In this region, the local population included a large Christian community, the Armenians.
Before the war, representatives from the Armenian community and the Ottomans had discussed the community's demand for some autonomy which may have come about had the First World War not come about. However, the prospect of an eventual Ottoman defeat encouraged Armenian nationalists to seize this opportunity to break away from the Ottoman Empire. Armenian volunteer units served in the Russian army, and there was agitation for a homeland in and around the Anatolian city of Van.
The CUP decided to take action against the Armenians and ordered collective reprisals against the entire Armenian population. Beginning in early 1915, the regime instituted a systematic policy of forced evacuation of Armenians from eastern and southern Anatolia. Hundreds and thousands were uprooted from villages and sent south towards the Syrian desert. Thousands died from starvation and illness along the deportation routes.
Watch the following video on the Armenian genocide and read the extract by Eugene Rogan below
What are the areas of controversy about this horrific episode which are identified in this video, and by Rogan?
Source B
There is no agreed number for the number of Ottoman Christians massacred in the course of the Great War..the debate persists into the twenty-first century as to whether the mass murder of Armenians between 1915 and 1918 was an unintentional consequences of war or a deliberate policy of extermination. But even those who deny the Armenian genocide acknowledge that between 600 000 and 850 000 Armenian civilians perished as a result of wartime measures. Armenian historians argue instead that deliberate state policy resulted in the deaths of between 1 million and 1.5 million Armenians - making this the first modern genocide'.
Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, pg 183
With the outbreak of war, the Entente powers realised that through the encouraging the nationalist sentiments within the Ottoman Empire, they might be able to cause dissent within the Ottoman army and thus undermine the Ottoman war effort. The Russians had already tried this with the Armenians but, as you have read above, this had ended with the relocation of the Armenians and the resulting genocide.
The British turned to the Arabs, who made up one third of the Empire's population. The Arabs had also negotiated with the Ottoman rulers before the war to try to obtain a degree of independence legally (see 5. The Young Turk Revolution) and when these attempts failed had asked the British for help on several occasions. Although the British reaction had been negative towards these advances before the war, once the war was underway and it was clear that the defeat of the Ottomans was not going to be as easy as they had expected, their position changed. An alliance with the Arabs now seemed much more attractive.
Watch the following video and answer the questions which follow
1. What were the aims of Sharif Hussein?
2. What was he given to understand by the British?
3. What was the problem with the document signed by the British?
4. In what ways was this agreement undermined?
5. What were Britain's priorities for the post-war world?
As you will have seen from the video, the British made several agreements concerning the Ottoman lands.
Research further:
- The Skyes-Picot agreement with the French
- Treaty of Constantinople with the Russians
- The Treaty of London and the Saint-Jean Maurienne Agreement with the Italians
- The Balfour Declaration with the Jews
In each case identify the promises made by the British and the impact that these promises would have on the Ottoman territories.
As you have seen from the video, the Arabs agreed to revolt against the Ottomans and in return the British agreed to back their demand for independence. The Arab troops were led by Sharif Hussein's sons, Faisal and Abdullah. Their first attack was on the Ottoman garrison in Mecca but was repulsed by the Turkish army and the British had to send reinforcements. By September the principal towns of the Hejaz, apart from Medina had been captured by the Arabs; however the mass support from the Arab-speaking Ottoman soldiers had not materialised.
Under Faisal, the Arabs then switched tactics to using guerilla warfare. This is where T. E. Lawrence - a junior member of he Arab Bureau in the Foreign Office - became an important figure in the revolt, becoming known as Lawrence of Arabia.
Watch the following lecture to understand the significance of T.E. Lawrence and the tactics used by the Arabs under the influence of T E Lawrence.
What factors allowed the successes of the Arabs?
1. In pairs discuss what historian Tim Lockley suggests about the importance of the 'Arab Revolt' to the defeat of the Ottomans.
Extract from an article by historian Professor Tim Lockley. Modern History Review. April 2024.
In mid-1916, supplied with British weapons and money and supported by British naval forces, the Arabs launched their revolt, attacking the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah.
The British dispatched several officers from Egypt (then under British control) to Arabia to help coordinate strategy, the most famous of whom was Captain T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia). From this start Arab forces attacked the Medina railway, disrupting the main supply line for Ottoman forces into Arabia, but gradually military strikes became bolder and more important for the outcome of the war. In mid-1917 Arab forces captured the port of Aqaba on the Red Sea, and as Ottoman resistance began to weaken, they pushed north, capturing Damascus and Aleppo before hostilities ceased.
2. Discuss with your partner, what Peter Mansfield suggests about the impact of the Arab Revolt in the defeat of the Ottomans?
Extract from academic Peter Mansfield. 1991. A History of the Middle East, Penguin Books.
Meanwhile, although the Arab Revolt launched by the Sharif aroused little response in Mesopotamia and Syria, which were still firmly under Turkish control, it made an important contribution to the war in the Middle East. It immobilised some 30,000 Turkish troops along the Hejaz railway from Amman to Medina and prevented the Turco-German forces in Syria from linking up with the Turkish garrison in Yemen. There could have been the most serious consequences for the Allies if the enemy forces had made contact with the Germans in East Africa and succeeded in closing the Red Sea to Allied Shipping.