2. The Chinese tribute system and western trade missions
The 'tributary system' operated by the Qing dynasty assumed that China was culturally and materially superior to all other nations. Thus any nations which wished to trade with China had to come as vassals to the emperor and would have to kowtow to the Emperor as a form of tribute, thus acknowledging his superiority and precedence as the ruler of 'all under heaven'. This system applied to all countries in along...