1. The impact of the First World War on Japan
The First World War saw Japan increasing its role on the world stage; it increased its territories and influence and, in the post-war years, entered into the Washington Treaties with the USA and Britain.
This section investigates this period of co-operation between Japan and the great powers.
The Siege of Tsingtao
Guiding Questions:
Why did Japan enter the First World War?
What was Japan’s military role in the First World War?
What was the significance of the ‘Twenty-one demands’ issued by Japan in January 1915?
What agreements and treaties were made between Japan and its allies during the First World War?
What was the economic impact of the First World War on Japan?
To what extent did Japan achieve its aims at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919?
Why was the ‘Siberian affair’ a costly failure for Japan?
What agreements were secured during the Washington Naval Conference (November 1921– February 1922)?
1. Why did Japan enter the First World War?
‘When a major war broke out in Europe in August 1914, Japan by virtue of the progress she had made in the previous fifty years, was for the first time in a position to intervene in European questions.’ W.G. Beasley
Starter
If you have not studied Topic 9, watch the video on the Meiji Japan and the developments that took place in Japan up to 1914 which can be found on this page: 9. Japan 1920 to 1990: Videos Make notes on the key economic, political and social changes as well as the impact of the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo Japanese War on Japan's growing nationalism.
The First World War began in August 1914 and over 10 million combatants were killed in the conflict in Europe and the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania. Japan joined the war on the side of Britain, France, Belgium, Russia and after April 1917 the US. The decisions Japan made during the conflict would have significant consequences for its foreign relations in the 1920s and 1930s and still reverberate today.
At the start of the conflict Japanese leaders were divided over whether to join the war. Some members of the military believed that Germany was the most civilized and sophisticated power and wanted to side with Berlin. However, the Navy and key government ministers wanted to honour the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, which had been renewed in 1911. Britain appealed to Japan for its assistance in defending its shipping against German warships in the Far East. On August 7 1914 foreign minister Takaaki Kato managed to overcome the pro-German faction in the cabinet. On August 15 Japan sent an ultimatum to Germany.
When the German government rejected Japan’s demands, Emperor Taisho declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914. Japan had entered the First World War.
Task One
ATL: Thinking Skills
1. What can you learn from these sources about Japan's motives for joining the war on the side of the Allies?
2. In pairs, refer to the origin, purpose and content, of Source A and Source B and analyse the value and limitations of these sources for historians studying Japan’s motives for entering the First World War.
Source A
Japanese government declaration to German government, 15 August 1914.
We consider it highly important and necessary in the present situation to take measures to remove the causes of all disturbance of peace in the Far East, and to safeguard general interests as contemplated in the agreement of alliance between Japan and Great Britain.
In order to secure firm and enduring peace in Eastern Asia, the establishment of which is the aim of the agreement, the Japanese government sincerely believes it to be its duty to give advice to the German government to carry out the following two propositions:
- To withdraw immediately from Japanese and Chinese waters the German warships and armed vessels of all kinds, and to disarm at once those which cannot be withdrawn.
- To deliver on a date not later than September 15 to the Japanese authorities, without condition or compensation, the entire leased territory of Jiaozhou with a view to the eventual restoration of the same to China.
The Japanese government announces at the same time that in the event of its not receiving by noon on August 23 an answer from the German government signifying unconditional acceptance… Japan will be compelled to take such action as it may deem necessary to meet the situation.
Source B
Emperor Taisho, Japanese declaration of war on Germany, 23 August, 1914.
We, by the Grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, on the throne occupied by the same dynasty from time immemorial, do hereby make the following proclamation to Our loyal and brave subjects. We hereby declare war against Germany and We command Our army and navy to carry out hostilities against that Empire with all their strength… We on our part, have entertained hopes of preserving the peace in the Far East by maintenance of strict neutrality, but the action of Germany has at length compelled Great Britain, Our ally, to open hostilities against that country, and Germany is at Jiaozhou, its leased territory in China, busy with warlike preparation, while her armed vessels, cruising the seas of Eastern Asia, are threatening Our commerce and that of our ally. The peace of the Far East is thus in jeopardy.
Accordingly, Our Government, and that of his Britannic Majesty, after a full and frank communication with each other, agrees to take such measures as may be necessary for the protection of the general interests contemplated in our Agreement of Alliance, and We on Our part, being desirous to attain that object by peaceful means, commanded Our government to offer, with sincerity, an advice to the Imperial German government. By the last day appointed for the purpose, however, Our government failed to receive an answer accepting their advice.
It is with profound regret that We, in spite of our ardent devotion to the cause of peace, are thus compelled to declare war, especially at this early period of our reign and will we are will in morning for Our lamented Mother.
It is Our earnest wish that, by the loyalty and valour of Our faithful subjects, peace may soon be restored and the glory of the Empire be enhanced.
As you can see from Source A and Source B Japan was interested in the concessions that Germany had forced on China: the lease of Kiachow Bay and railway and mining concessions in Shantung province. Japan was also interested in acquiring German-controlled islands in the Pacific.
Japan had sought to increase and diversify its interests in China since the Double Tenth revolution and the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. This had been difficult as the western powers were hostile to any threat to their own influence in China. Japan had wanted to extend its position and railway rights in Manchuria [taken from Russia in 1905]. After the overthrow of the Manchu, Japan had had two ways of maintaining and increasing its interests in China
- Work with the revolutionary forces in China; help them to modernize China in cooperation with Japan or
- An intervention in China that would secure Japan’s interests
Pursuit of the second option was hindered by the fear that the European powers would object to Japanese intervention and oppose it. Japan had had to work gradually and in concert with Britain and Russia. However, once the imperial powers were focused on the war in Europe, Japan had the opportunity to exploit the situation and make considerable gains in China.
Task Two
ATL: Thinking skills
In pairs discuss the ways in which the outbreak of the First World War provided Japan with an opportunity to make gains in the Far East.
2. What was Japan’s military role in the First World War?
Starter
Watch the following video from 6 minutes and 30 seconds until 9 minutes in and note down Japan's involvement in the First World War. Why did it not get involved in the European war theatre?
On September 2, 1914, Japanese troops landed in Shantung Peninsular and advanced towards Tsingtao and Kiachow Bay. Tsingtao had fallen by November 7. The Japanese navy attacked Kiachow from the sea while its army attacked on the land. This meant that Japan had violated Chinese neutrality by marching on Chinese soil. After the surrender of Tsingtao the German Tsingtao-Tsinan railway was attacked.
Japan’s navy was also successful in October and its forces occupied German-held pacific islands north of the equator. The navy took over the German possessions of the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall islands. Japan incurred about 200 casualties and held around 500 German POWs by the end of 1914. Japan subsequently limited its action to some minor naval duties in the Far East. Japan could now focus on action in China.
Task One
ATL: Research skills
In groups of four explore Japan’s military role in the First World War in more depth. Your group could organize the research on an annotated timeline:
1914___________________________________________________________________1918
3. What was the significance of the ‘Twenty-One demands’ issued by Japan in January 1915?
The impact of the Twenty-One demands on China is covered in Topic 12: 1. Rise of national identity in China (ATL)
On 18 January 1915 the Japanese government issued the so-called ’Twenty-One demands’ to China’s leader, General Yuan Shikai. Yuan attempted to negotiate, but on 7 May Japan issued China with a 48-hour ultimatum to accept the demands. However, facing Chinese and international opposition, Japan then withdrew one fifth of the demands. It was the ‘fifth’ group of demands that had been the most dangerous for China’s independence, and these were ‘postponed’. Britain urged China to agree, which it did – reluctantly, and a series of agreements were signed on 25 May 1915. Japan gained little from these agreements and subsequent Chinese governments refused to accept their legitimacy. The Twenty-One demands also established Japan as China’s most dangerous imperialist threat. The demands also led to tension between Japan and the US, and to a certain extent with Britain. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan warned Japan that his government would not recognize any agreement that violated US interests in China.
Task One
ATL: Thinking and communication skills
- In pairs follow this link below to the terms of the Twenty-One demands.
- Identify the key points made in each of the ‘groups’ outlined.
- In the same pairs, one student will draft a brief bullet point response from a Chinese official and the other from a US official to the Twenty-One Demands.
4. What agreements and treaties were made between Japan and its allies during the First World War?
Former Governor General of Korea, Terauchi Masatake was made Premier in October 1916. Terauchi had rejected British calls for troops to be sent to Europe, and refused to send naval forces to the Baltic, Mediterranean and the Dardanelles claiming that Japan’s forces were needed for its own defence. In January 1917 Terauchi did respond to British requests for assistance against German U-boats, but in exchange for providing escorts a secret agreement was made in February 1916. Britain agreed it would back Japan’s claims in Shangtung, the Marianas, Carolines and Marshalls and Japan would support British claims to former German islands in the Pacific south of the equator.
The US had entered the First World War in April 1917, and it was determined that Japan would not continue to take advantage of the situation to make further gains in China.
The US had entered the First World War in April 1917, and it was determined that Japan would not continue to take advantage of the situation to make further gains in China.
The potential for conflict between the United States and Japan over China, led the two governments to negotiate. In September 1917, Japan sent an ambassador to the US. As a result of this, the Ishii-Lansing Agreement of 1917 was signed by which:
- Both countries agreed to respect China's sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity.
- Japan promised to respect the Open Door Policy, which gave all foreign nations equal trading rights in China.
- In return the U.S. recognized Japan's right to protect its special interests in areas of China bordering on its own territory (Manchuria)
- Both countries agreed not to take advantage of the war to seek special rights or privileges in China
The Chinese were horrified by this ‘betrayal’ by the US.
Interesting point: Some historians have suggested that concerns regarding Japanese expansion in the Far East played a part in the US entry into the First World War. The Zimmerman telegram made reference to Mexico pursuing diplomatic contact with Japan. Indeed, although Tokyo had not been involved with the telegram the matter did not help ease Washington’s suspicions of Japan’s aims and ambitions
In addition, Japan entered into a number of ‘secret understandings’ with Britain, the US, France and Italy in 1917. In these agreements Britain recognized Japan’s claims in the Shandong Peninsular. Japan in return recognized Britain’s control of islands formerly held by Germany south of the equator. The US also recognized Japan’s claims in China, and Japan agreed it would not interfere in US economic concessions in China. Italy and France recognized Japan’s position in China.
Japan also agreed to urge the Chinese government to end diplomatic relations and declare war on Germany. Japan appointed Nishihara Kamezo with the role of persuading China to enter the war against Germany.
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Discuss the motives of the US, Britain and Japan in engaging with these treaties and agreements.
What do these agreements reveal about the attitude of the powers towards the independence and sovereignty of China?
5. What was the economic impact of the First World War on Japan?
Starter
Continue watching the video above from 9 minutes in. What economic factors helped Japan became a world power by 1918?
Although Japan protected allied shipping and troop convoys in the pacific it did not participate in major military action and therefore it incurred no major economic cost or loss of life. Indeed, Japan enjoyed an economic boom during the First World War. Japan established itself as a leading industrial state and its international prestige increased due to its contribution to the allied war effort.
Task One
ATL: Thinking Skills
In pairs read through the information in the chart below and create an infographic that shows the economic impact of the First World War on Japan.
At the end of the war the boom ended, although the economy continued to grow it was at a slower rate. Despite its light industry securing a share of the world market, overseas markets for Japanese goods collapsed. There was a fall in prices and unemployment rose. The influx of capital during the war had already led to rampant inflation. The Hara cabinet was reluctant to implement deflationary policies as it did not want to damage its relationship with business interests. In August 1918 there were rice riots [kome sodo] in towns and cities across Japan due to postwar inflation in food prices. The food shortages were exacerbated by the ‘Siberian expedition’ [see below]. Its position as a creditor nation was soon reversed and Japan again became a debtor nation.
Japan's political system also changed in the post-war years. This is covered in the next section on Taisho Japan: 2. Taisho Democracy
6. To what extent did Japan achieve its aims at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919?
The Japanese delegation at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference: former Foreign Minister Baron Makino Nobuaki, former Prime Minister Marquis Saionji Kinmochi, and the Japanese Ambassador to Great Britain Viscount Chinda Sutemi.
'… considering how little part she played in wartime operations, it was great tribute to her general standing that she was one of the five Powers to have representatives on the Council of Ten…
Historian W.G. Beasley, page 207.
The war had made Japan a world power. It had a military and naval capability to support its nations claims to influence and territory and an economy capable of sustaining a formidable military.
The victorious powers met to agree the terms of the peace treaties with the defeated nations. Japan sent a large delegation. Prince Saionji Kimmochi was Japan’s head delegate sent to the Versailles Conference. Saionji had been prime minister between 1906 and 1908, and again 1911 and 1912. As an experienced politician and leader, he had the benefit of already knowing the French leader Clemenceau when they met as students. Saionji was also treated as an equal by the British prime minister Lloyd George and US president Woodrow Wilson. Japan was given one of only five power representation on the Council of Ten, which discussed peace terms. Indeed, at Versailles Japan’s delegates were ranked next in importance to France, Britain and the US.
Japan’s interest as one of the ‘Big Five’ was limited to two key aims at the Paris Peace Conference.
- International recognition of its claims to former German concessions and property in the Shandong Peninsular, the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands. There territories were all north of the equator
- A condemnation of racial prejudice written into the covenant of the League of Nations.
Territorial aims
Shantung proved to be a major stumbling block. China had sent a strong delegation to Versailles, and had energetically and vigorously argued that the concession granted in 1915 had been forced upon China. China claimed that Japan was pursuing imperialist objectives.
Britain attempted to find a compromise by proposing that Japan receive a League of Nations mandate over the peninsular. Wilson was amenable to this idea as he wanted to maintain British support for the new supra-national organization, the League. Japan refused both compromises. On April 30 a clause was recognizing Japanese rights, subject to arrangements with China. The Chinese delegation refused to sign. The Shandong question was left unresolved, with Japan retaining control of the peninsular on a temporary basis until the matter could be legally decided. No date was set for a decision. News of this impasse was received with outrage in China and a boycott of Japanese good was implemented.
There was limited dispute regarding Japanese claims to the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands. Japan was given the administration of the islands on behalf of the League of Nations,’ as a class C’ mandate. Japan was satisfied with this agreement, although as mandated territories it could not fortify them.
Racial equality clause
Japan had proposed the inclusion of a racial equality clause during the negotiations on the establishment of the League of Nations. This was prompted by a mixture of continued resentment of the old ‘unequal treaties’ and public opinion in Japan that opposed recent immigration restrictions imposed by the US and Australia. The Japanese diplomat Makino Nobuaki gave a speech in which he highlighted how the war had brought men of different races together, fighting side by side, which had created a ‘common bond of sympathy and gratitude’ that had ‘never before been experienced’
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Watch – ‘Road to war Japan’ from 7.30 – 9.35 which can be found here: 4. Japanese expansion in East Asia: Videos and activities
Make notes regarding the context of Japan’s proposal for a racial equality clause.
The proposal for a racial equality clause was made on 13th February 1919. It would be an amendment to Article 21 and stated:
The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race of nationality.
The French declared in favour [as it considered its culture to be ‘civilizing’ to its colonies regardless of skin colour], the Italians stated that the clause addressed basic human rights and Chinese delegation, otherwise opposed to Japanese claims, supported the clause. On April 11 1919 the clause won a majority vote in the commission. Japan, France, Italy, China, Brazil, Greece, Serbia and Czechoslovakia voted in favour. However, the inclusion of a racial equality clause in the covenant of the League did not gain international support. Indeed, the British empire, the US, Portugal, Belgium and Romania did not register a vote. Japan had not fully appreciated the ramification of such a clause on the western colonial dominance over non-white peoples. Head of the British League of Nations section of the Foreign Office, Lord Robert Cecil suggested that the clause was so ‘controversial’ it should not be discussed at all.
Japan wanted to be perceived as equals to the western powers but the failure to get the clause included proved humiliating. Japanese immigrants that wanted to emigrate to the US and Australia faced limitations which were seen as prejudiced. US president Woodrow Wilson supported the clause repudiating racial prejudice but he faced opposition in America to the idea and was forced to reject Japan’s proposal. Wilson needed the votes of the segregationist southern Democrats in order to get ratification from the Senate for the settlement. Wilson, in an attempt to placate the delegation, promised to support Japanese claims to former German possessions in China. The Prime Minister of Australia, W.M Hughes wanted to pursue a ‘White Australia’ policy, and argued against the clause. British Prime minister Lloyd George also rejected the clause due to its potential impact in Britain’s colonies.
The League of Nations covenant therefore did not include a clause denouncing racial prejudice. Japan deeply resented the failure to include the clause, despite having a permanent seat on the Council and full representation in the League’s secretariat and committees.
Task Two
ATL: Thinking skills
- What does the poster below reveal about the attitude of the US government towards its First World War ally, Japan?
- Discuss with a partner how the US portrayal of Japan as a nation of ‘liberty and humanity’ was challenged by the rejection of the racial equality clause during the Versailles conference
Task Three
ATL: Thinking and communication skills
Resolution:
The Japanese delegation had great success at the Versailles conference.
Divide your class into two teams.
Team A will argue for the resolution and highlight the territorial gains Japan has made at Versailles.
Team B will argue against the resolution and highlight the failure of Japan’s delegation to secure the inclusion of a racial equality clause in the League of Nations charter
7. Why was the ‘Siberian affair’ a costly failure for Japan?
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
In pairs watch the following clip from the video The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire: 3 minutes – 9 minutes. The video has interesting original footage of the key events.
Make notes on Japan’s relationship with Russia from 1900 to 1919.
ATL: Research skills
In pairs research Japan’s intervention in the Russian Civil War, the ‘Siberian Affair’. Apply your prior learning from this unit to the new information you gather and analyse the impact of this intervention on:
- The Japanese economy
- The Japanese military
- Japanese public opinion
- Japan’s relations with foreign powers
8. What agreements were secured during the Washington Naval Conference (November 1921– February 1922)?
The Paris Peace conference had not resolved key issues and tensions in the Far East. The US continued to be concerned about Japan’s influence in China and wanted to ensure that all nations could trade equally in the region. The US was also aware that should it engage in a conflict with Japan, under the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Britain may be called on to support it Asian ally. However, Britain was also concerned about Japan’s growing influence in China as a potential threat to its own position and was not committed to renewing the treaty. It was also particularly alarmed at the potential of being drawn into a conflict between the US and Japan. The Japanese delegation had two key aims: to sign a naval agreement with Britain and the US and to gain official recognition of its ‘special interests’ in Manchuria and Mongolia. In addition, the Japanese wanted acknowledgement of its control of Siberia and Tsingtao
The US invited representatives of eight powers to a conference in Washington, the US, China, Japan, France, Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Portugal. Japan was also worried by the increasing presence of US fleets in the Pacific.
Three key agreements were subsequently signed during the Washington Conference:
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Read the information below which provides more information on the agreements (click on the eye)
Use the information to create a mind map to show the impact of the the Washington agreements.
Use the following headings:
- Arms race
- Impact on China
- US-Japanese relations
- Japanese territorial claims
- Japan's position re other powers
The Four Power Pact December 13 1921
The Four Power Pact ended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance which was allowed to lapse in August 1923. The US, Japan, Britain and France agreed to maintain the status quo in the Far East and to respect each other’s rights in the region. The US and Britain both were satisfied that this pact had removed the obligations of the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Although Japan gained protection from possible western attack, it lost its western ally and at the same time removed any future British influence on Japanese policy in the region.
The Five Power Naval Treaty
The Five Power Naval Treaty was an agreement to restrict capital ship tonnages to the ratio of 5:5:3:1.67: 1.67 for the US, Britain, Japan, France and Italy respectively. The US, Britain and Japan also agreed not to build more capital ships within the next decade. It was hoped that this would prevent an expensive naval arms race. US intelligence had deciphered messages sent from Tokyo to its delegates and was then able to maneuver Japan to accept its lowest ratio terms.
Japan had argued for a 10: 10: 7, but with US and Britain standing firm it accepted the offer of no new fortification in the pacific. The treaty in fact benefitted Japan as the US economy could afford to build a navy which bigger than the 5:3 ration, indeed its economy was around 18 time larger than Japans. The Japanese also had gained the guarantee that no new naval bases would be built in the Pacific. As the US and Britain could not build bases in the Philippines and Hong Kong the pact enhanced Japanese security. Gave Japan key advantage re. approaches to Chinese coast.
The Nine Power Pact February 1922
All eight participants of the conference signed the Nine Power Pact. The signatories agreed that all nations had equal trading right with China and not to take advantage of its weak position to gain advantage. It was also agreed that all parties would respect China’s neutrality in any future conflict. All existing privileges in China were upheld.
‘That such promises [on China] were needed at all was itself significant. That they would be fulfilled was unlikely, especially as the treaty set up no machinery for enforcement.’ (Beasley pg 211)
Task Two
ATL: Thinking skills
In pairs read Source D below by historian Kenneth Pyle and discuss the extent to which you agree that the ‘Washington system was a house built on sand.’
The Washington System was a house built on sand. It relied upon the hopeful expectation that peaceful commercial competition would replace armed rivalries. It turned out to be heavily dependent on economic performance and when 'the great storage battery' of the North American economy ... ran dry, the new order of the 1920s disintegrated. The Anglo-American powers failed to underwrite the new system they had created. They abandoned the principles upon which the system was based by retreating into isolationism and adopting protectionist measures.
Extract from historian Kenneth Pyle’s academic essay, entitled ‘The profound forces in the making of modern Japan.’ 2006.
Task Three
ATL: Thinking and research skills
History Kenneth Pyle suggests that since entering the ‘modern world’, Japan experienced five fundamental changes in the East Asian order, the first two are listed below:
1. The collapse of the Sinocentric system and the establishment of the Western imperialist order in the mid-nineteenth century;
2. The end of the imperialist system after World War I and the beginning of a new American-inspired system worked out through several treaties negotiated at the Washington Conference in 1921-22
Therefore, Japan’s aims during the First World War and its policies after the war were a reflection of these two fundamental changes in the East Asian order.
In pairs research the views of historians writing on Japan, the First World War and the post-war conferences. Attempt to identify historians that suggest that Japan had successfully achieved its aims, and those that argue the impact of the war and the implications of the treaties were more limited for Japan.
Here are some historians that might provide you with interesting historiography on this topic.
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