The Eastern Question refers to the political and economic instability in the Ottoman Empire from the late 18th to early 20th centuries, and the impact that this had on the actions of the European great powers as they sought to keep stability in the region and ensure that their own interests were not challenged. Basically the question was - what would take the place of the Ottoman Empire if it disintegrated?

Starter

Watch the following video introducing the Eastern Question.

List some of the motivations for French, British, and Russian involvement in Ottoman territory

As you have already seen, the Turks were struggling to hold onto their vast Empire in the early 19th Century.  Despite the efforts to reform their military and government, the tumultuous reigns of the sultans during the 1800’s - Sultan Selim III, Mahmud II, and Abdulmejid, and eventually Abdul Hamid II - led to the weakening of control over their various territories. By 1832 Greece had declared independence, and it became clear the European powers had their own interests in the area.

'The Crimea, a Crime'

John Bright, politician

https://www.britannica.com/event/Crimean-War

A joint invasion force, over 60,000 strong, of British, French and Turkish troops landed at Kalamatia Bay, north of Sevastopol, on 14 -16 September 1854. The landings were unopposed by the Russians.

 W.H. Russell, an Irish journalist writing for The Times, witnessed the early allied operations and noted that 'The French, though they had tents, had no cavalry; the Turks had neither cavalry nor food; the British had cavalry, but they had neither tents nor transport, nor ambulances nor litters.'

The war was a disastrous fiasco. The Allies started well by defeating the Russians at the battle of The Alma but, instead of going onto attack Sevastopol, they held back at French insistence and so allowed the Russians to strengthen their defences. Russian counter-attacked - at Balaclava (when the Charge of the Light Brigade occurred) and at Inkerman; they were repelled with many casualties.

The increased use of technology and the sheer scale of weaponry used, led to one of the highest numbers of casualties in any war to date. The Great Powers and the Ottomans suffered close to 223,000 total casualties and the Russians suffered more than 500,000 casualties. Though many of these were from disease rather than direct warfare.

After the Russians failed to dislodge the allied armies from the Crimea in the battles of Balaclava and Inkerman, military deadlock ensued. British forces, short of food, clothing, ammunition, and medical supplies were ill-prepared for a long campaign and the winter of 1854 - 55 brought dreadful suffering aggravated by medical and administrative incompetence. Newspaper correspondents, such as WH Russell of The Times, sent back detailed and uncensored reports so that the British public was reasonably well informed about what was happening.

The Crimean War ended for several reasons:

• In France, public opinion was not as war-like as it was in Britain and the eventual fall of Sevastopol appeared to satisfy France's honour; thus it now demanded an end to the war. Napoleon II agreed realising that he was unlikely to achieve his ambitions of extending French power.
• In Britain, Palmerston was still pro-war but Parliamentary criticism of British military and political leadership was mounting. Palmerston was also afraid that France was on the verge of opening secret talks with the Russians and wanted to avoid a separate peace at all costs.
• In Russia, Nicholas I died on 2 March 1855 and Alexander II did not have the same commitment to the war, which was ruining both finances and foreign trade; conditions for the Russian solders were even worse than they were for the British and French and recruitment of conscripts for the army was provoking unrest in the countryside. There was also the danger that Sweden and even Austria would enter the war against Russia.
• An armistice was agreed and the opening of a peace conference in Paris in late February marked the end of the war.

As a result of the Treaty of Paris, Russian imperial ambitions were temporarily checked, and their expansion into Ottoman territory was halted. The Black Sea was officially established as neutral territory and warships were no longer allowed passage through. Neither Russia nor Turkey were now able to have military fortifications along the coast of the sea. This benefited Britain as well, whose naval power remained unchallenged.

The balance of power however continued to shift. Soon after Germany was unified, and the continued growth of nationalism and imperialism increased tension within the Ottoman territories.

Starter

What is the message of this cartoon from the British Punch magazine, June 1876?

Throughout the 19th Century, the Ottomans faced challenges to their rule in the Balkans. You have already covered the Serbian Revolution of 1804 and the Greek Revolt. But the Sultan faced revolts in other states during the first half of the 19th Century which highlighted the weakness of their rule in the Balkans

Activity Six: ATL -  Thinking and Research skills

Choose one of the following Balkan states, and research the rebellions against the Ottomans in this state focusing on the questions below.

When you have finished share your findings with another student. Then switch partners until you have notes on each revolt/war.

 Teacher only box

Students choose one of the independence movements from below and answer the following questions. Students should work independently on the task. Once finished, set students in pairs, and give them 5 minutes to share on each war. Once both students have shared, switch partners until students have taken notes on each war.

• What were the causes of  the rebellions/wars in your state?
• What was the course (events/timeline) of the conflict/s?
• What was the outcome?
• How do events in this state highlight weaknesses in the Ottoman Empire?
• Also find a primary source related to the conflict: can be a picture, speech, cartoon, or document.

Bosnian rebellions 1831–1836, 1836–1837, 1841.

Albanian rebellions 1820–1822, 1830–1835, 1847.

War with Montenegro 1852–1853

War with Montenegro, Bosnia and Serbia in 1862

Cretan Uprising in 1866

Bulgarian Rebellion in 1876

Between 1875 and 1877 the Sultan of Turkey was faced with revolts in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro. The Turks inflicted severe reprisals including the slaughter of some 10,000 Bulgarians in 1876 and this prompted the Russians to aid its fellow Slavs.

In April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey, having secured Austrian neutrality with a promise to respect Habsburg interests in the Balkans. Eleven months later the victorious Russians imposed the severe San Stefano Treaty on the Turks. Its main terms gave Romania, Serbia and Montenegro their independence and enlarged their territories. A new, much enlarged, 'Big' Bulgaria, dominating the Balkans, would become semi-independent (within the Ottoman Empire), but aided by Russia until it could stand on its on feet.

This got a hostile reaction from both Austria and Britain who regarded Russia's proposal to create a Greater Bulgaria as a Russian attempt to to establish a Balkan client state with a strategically important Aegean coastline. Historian M. S. Anderson called the treaty 'the fullest practical expression ever given in Russian foreign policy to the Panslav ideal'.

A British fleet was sent to Turkish waters, troops were recalled from India, and Russia was faced with the options of war or of revising the San Stefano Treaty.

                                  Map from The Great Powers, 1814 to 1819, Wilmot, 1992, Nelson

In an attempt to defuse the crisis the Powers agreed to Austria's suggestion to discuss the issue at a Congress in Berlin in June and July 1877 where Bismarck was to mediate. The revision of the San Stefano Treaty proved acceptable to all the Powers with the exception of Russia. Russia had hoped that Bismarck would offer them his support but this did not happen.

• The large state of Bulgaria was divided into 3 parts. The largest was the core-state of Bulgaria which officially became a self-governing principality under ultimate Turkish control
• Romania, Montenegro and Serbia were recognised as independent states.
• The strategic province of Macedonia was to remain part of the Ottoman Empire
• Austria-Hungary was given the right to occupy but not to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina

As historian Langer writes, 'Russia could hardly have been more effectively checked even by war': 'Big' Bulgaria was divided into three, the Turkish Empire still survived (though seriously weakened) and British power in the eastern Mediterranean was enormously increased. Slav nationalists bitterly criticised the Chancellor in the press and the Tsar described the Congress as 'a coalition of the European powers against Russia under the leadership of Prince Bismarck'. Bismarck had succeeded in his goal of preventing another conflict but he was now in a potentially dangerous position with the collapse of his alliance with Russia and Austria. Meanwhile for the Ottoman Empire, 'the Sultan was still the nominal suzerain of the territories...but, as with Bulgaria, everybody understood that Bosnia, Herzegovinia and the Sunjak were lost to the Ottoman Empire for ever. Even Istanbul's only substantial remaining holdings, Macededonia and Albania, left the Porte with many more problems than advantages'. Misha Glenny, The Balkans pg 147