12 TOK concepts

Certainty
Technically, a claim is certain when it cannot be otherwise. It means that it has a 100% chance of being correct - no less. Certainty is a very high bar and few areas of knowledge can get there. The natural sciences frequently point out that their results are only provisional or even probable. While scientific theories and models may be highly supported by evidence and widely accepted within the scientific community, they are always subject to potential falsification or revision - therefore scientific results are not certain in this absolute sense. Human sciences and History are more likely to deal in what is possible or likely. The Arts do not deal with knowledge claims at all, so in a technical sense, certainty has little to do with them. But in a broader sense, the arts deal more with the possible world rather than the actual certain world.  

However, in mathematics and formal logic, certainty is the norm. Mathematical truths, unlike those of all other areas of knowledge, are certain. This is because these fields often deal with abstract concepts and rigorous logical systems where conclusions can be derived from axioms or premises with absolute certainty.

Possible knowledge questions:
Is certainty about the past (history) achievable?
Why are claims of certainty treated with caution in natural or human sciences?
Is absolute certainty possible in mathematics?
How certain can we be of knowledge derived from the arts?

(more about certainty: Core Theme: Scope 1 - Four metaphors for knowledge,  Core theme: Scope 2 - Knowledge concepts - What knowledge is at stake?, Scope of Natural Sciences, Methods and Tools: explanation in the natural sciences,  Methods and Tools: experiment and observation, Methods and Tools: theories - laws, models and assumptions,  Scope: What are the Human Sciences?, Mathematics, Scope of History)

Culture
 

Culture refers to the set of shared beliefs, values, customs, traditions, practices, and artefacts that characterise a particular group of people. It encompasses the way of life of a community, including its language, social norms, rituals, arts, cuisine, and other aspects of human activity that are passed down from generation to generation.

Culture is dynamic and constantly evolving as it is influenced by historical events, technological advancements, globalisation and changes within the community itself.

Possible knowledge questions:
How does culture influence how we acquire and produce knowledge?
How do different TOK concepts differ between cultures?
Can there be knowledge independent of culture?
How does culture influence what we know?
Is there knowledge belonging only to a particular culture that no one else can understand?

(more about culture: Core theme Perspectives: Non-Western knowledges, Knowledge and Language, Knowledge and religion, Knowledge and Indigenous Societies, The Arts)

Evidence

Evidence refers to features in the world that are used to support facts - the basic unit of knowledge. It can have many forms. In the natural sciences, evidence is often taken to be measurements or observations collected under controlled conditions. In history it takes the form of documentary sources, and in mathematics it can be logical reasoning where it takes the form of proof.


Possible knowledge questions:
What constitutes good evidence in a particular area of knowledge?
How do experts resolve contradictory evidence?
In what ways can evidence be misused?
Can there be knowledge beyond evidence?

(more about evidence: Core Theme Methods and Tools 1: Knowledge Structures, Core Theme Methods and Tools 4: Giving and accepting reasons for claims, Natural Sciences: Methods and Tools: experiment and observation,  Methods and Tools 1: psychology and economics, Methods and Tools 2: Sociology and Anthropology, Methods and tools of History)

Explanation
An explanation is a solution to a puzzle. It is the 'aha' moment that is the response to the earlier 'that is strange!' Explanations give us understanding. This can be an understanding of phenomena in the natural world or the human world. It can be an understanding of documents that trace events in the past. In this sense, it provides reasons for certain events to happen. But there are also explanations for why a certain work of art is effective.

Possible knowledge questions:
What are the difficulties in providing an explanation for our knowledge?
How do we decide which explanation is better than another?
What kinds of explanations are offered in different areas of knowledge?
What constitutes good explanation in a particular area of knowledge?

(more about explanation: Methods and Tools: explanation in the natural sciences, Methods and Tools 1: psychology and economics, Methods and Tools 2: Sociology and Anthropology, Methods and tools of History)

Interpretation
Interpretation refers to explaining or understanding the meaning or significance of something, such as a text, a work of art, an event, or a phenomenon. It involves analysing and making sense of a text or object within a particular context or framework. Depending on the area of knowledge, it can be an interpretation of a piece of art, data or practice.


Possible knowledge questions:
Which areas of knowledge offer more freedom of interpretation?
What factors contribute to a successful interpretation?
Can experts be free of bias in their interpretations?
How do we reconcile multiple interpretations of the same phenomenon?

(more about interpretation: Core theme: Scope 2 - Knowledge concepts - What knowledge is at stake?, The Arts: Methods and Tools, Methods and Tools of History but also  Methods and Tools: experiment and observation, Methods and Tools 1: psychology and economics, Methods and Tools 2: Sociology and Anthropology )

Justification
Justification refers to providing reasons or evidence to support a claim. It aims to demonstrate the truth of a statement. Justification typically involves offering arguments, evidence, or logical reasoning.


Possible knowledge questions:
Which methods of justification are convincing in a particular area of knowledge?
On what criteria should we base our ethical justifications?
What constitutes good justification in a particular area of knowledge?

(more about justification: Core theme: Methods and Tools 2 - argument and syllogisms, Core Theme Methods and Tools 4: Giving and accepting reasons for claims, but also Methods and Tools: explanation in the natural sciences and Methods and Tools: theories - laws, models and assumptions, Methods and Tools 1: psychology and economics, Methods and Tools 2: Sociology and Anthropology, Mathematics: Methods and Tools, Methods and tools of History)

Objectivity
Objectivity literally means 'in the object'. It refers to features of a situation that are independent of those observing it. In practice, it means those aspects of the world that do not depend on the state of mind of particular individuals. Some authors describe objectivity as a 'mind-independent' feature of the world. In many areas of knowledge, but not perhaps all, objectivity is a central aim. The hope is that these areas of knowledge have methods that get a grip on those features that will still be around when the particular team investigating them is no longer around. This means that these investigations should be independent of the perspectives, personal opinions or emotions or the hopes and desires of the investigators. 

Achieving complete objectivity can be challenging, or indeed impossible, as individuals are inevitably influenced by their personal experiences, beliefs, and cultural backgrounds. However, efforts can be made to minimise subjectivity (a lack of objectivity) through rigorous methods, critical thinking, and transparency in decision-making processes. Acknowledging one's biases and being transparent about potential sources of influence is crucial for maintaining objectivity.

Possible knowledge questions:
Is objectivity more attainable in some areas of knowledge than in others?
What are the methods for maintaining objectivity?
How far is objectivity important?

(for more about objectivity: Core theme: Scope 2 - Knowledge concepts - What knowledge is at stake? but also The Arts: Methods and Tools,  Bias in history

Perspective
Perspective is one of the central ideas in ToK and is one of the Knowledge Framework elements and refers to a particular way of viewing or understanding something, often shaped by an individual's beliefs, experiences, values, and cultural background, leading to diverse viewpoints and interpretations of the same subject matter.


Possible knowledge questions:
Do we have an obligation to understand or acknowledge the perspectives of other knowers?
What are the factors shaping our perspectives?
Are all perspectives equally acceptable?
How does the historical development of a discipline shape the perspectives present in it?

(more about perspectives: Core theme Perspectives: Non-Western knowledges, and any perspectives section of any Area of Knowledge or Optional Theme)

Power
Power can be defined as the ability to exert control, influence, or authority over knowledge or knowers. It can be a result of political, social, historical, linguistic, or psychological factors shaping the relationships within a community. While power can be used in positive ways to promote cooperation and progress, it can also be abused to exploit, oppress, or harm.


Possible knowledge questions:
How does knowledge depend on the power structures?
Can knowledge change the existing power structures?
Are there types of knowledge that can be considered more powerful than others?

(more about power: Knowledge and Language: Ethics, Knowledge and politics, Knowledge and technology: perspectives - Technology impact on knowledge perspectives,  Art and power)

Responsibility
Responsibility means being accountable for one's actions (including knowledge that informs one's actions). This means that one can be praised when they go well and blamed when they do not. Responsibility sometimes goes hand-in-hand with the fulfilment of a particular role. It may attach to decisions and their consequences, taking ownership of the outcomes, and acknowledging the impacts they have. In terms of knowledge, responsibility might be a consequence of possessing or not possessing knowledge, and it may refer to the obligation to share the knowledge or keep it secret.

Possible knowledge questions:
What are the responsibilities related to having or not having knowledge?
Do we have ethical responsibilities when producing knowledge?
Are responsibilities differing between the areas of knowledge?

(more about responsibility:  Core theme Ethics 1: Knowledge and Responsibility, Core Theme Ethics 2: Knowledge Virtues and the Ethics section of any Area of Knowledge or Optional Theme)

Truth
Truth is a property of knowledge: that it corresponds to reality in the right way. A claim is true if it fits what is out there in the world. It is a concept that fits well with the notebook and map metaphors but less so with the story and maze metaphors for knowledge. 

Possible knowledge questions:
Is truth the goal of the production of knowledge?
Is truth in mathematics different from the truth in other areas of knowledge?
How far is truth a social concept?

(more about the truth: Core theme: Scope 2 - Knowledge concepts - What knowledge is at stake?, Core Theme: Scope 3 - Truth and other philosophical stuff)

Values
Values reflect the idea that some things mean more to us than others. There can be aesthetic values - some paintings are better than others, ethical - some actions are better than others, practical - some actions are better than others, political - some ways of organising society are better than others, religious - some things are worth believing, and so on. Values may be individual or attached to the group, but in any case, they are likely to be shaped by the culture in which we grow up. Values can vary across cultures, genders, age groups and classes. But there are some core values that many, if not most, human beings subscribe to, such as it is important to live a full, flourishing life and that it is not good to kill another human being without just cause. 

Possible knowledge questions:
How do values shape the production or acquisition of knowledge?
Is new knowledge able to change the existing values?
Are there values that underpin the production of knowledge?

(more about values: Core theme Ethics 1: Knowledge and responsibility , Core Theme Ethics 2: Knowledge Virtues  The Arts: Methods and Tools, Knowledge and Politics: Perspectives, Knowledge and Indigenous Societies: Scope 3 - Culture)