Itiner-e: How Tech Reimagines an Ancient Road Network
Technology is a valuable tool in production of knowledge in many areas. In history, it allows us to reconstruct the unknown past, from buildings to documents. Thanks to advanced models of analysis it also enables finding patterns in the available evidence, redcusing effort and human error. Despite its flaws, it is used by historians as an essetial tool in their work.
When technology intersects with history, remarkable outcomes can emerge. On 6 November 2025, scientists from Denmark, Spain, Belgium, France, Turkey, Czechia, the Netherlands, and Italy released Itiner-e, an extensive open digital dataset mapping roads across the entire Roman Empire (~150 CE). The project addresses both a historical-data gap (mapping roads in antiquity) and a technological one (creating open, high-resolution, GIS-compatible digital infrastructure for ancient roads). It used historical and archaeological sources, such as ancient itineraries – these are lists of road destinations and distances such as the Antonine Itinerary, or the Tabula Peutingeriana - plus evidence from excavation sites, as well as geolocation data from aerial photography, satellite imagery, and topographic maps. The project covers not only the confirmed roads but also conjectured or hypothesised ones based on the available data. All the roads are assigned certainty categories (Certain, Conjectured, Hypothetical). It maps over 299,171.31 km of roads in an area of nearly 4,000,000 km², which is almost double the previously known extent. With this dataset, historians and archaeologists can explore new research questions that were previously hard to address, for example, how mobility networks developed, how infrastructure affected the Roman Empire, and how roads influenced the spread of disease. Despite this great work, there are still limitations—such as the absence of chronological development of the networks and underrepresented regions due to scarce data, which also limits the certainty of conjectured and hypothetical roads (de Soto et al. 2025).
Discussion Questions:
- How does technology change the production of historical knowledge?
- How does collaboration across countries contribute to the production of historical knowledge?
- What facts are used in the reconstruction?
- What are the advantages of digital models over previous methods?
- To what extent can such a reconstruction be considered knowledge given that it based on conjectures and suppositions?
- Can historians ever achieve certainty when it comes to reconstructions of the past?
Commentary:
With advancements in technology, historical knowledge evolves, not only regarding the tools used to produce it but also the types of knowledge we can generate. New technology enables us to visualise Roman road networks with a precision that was unattainable with traditional methods, and GIS software facilitates further analysis of these maps in research. Technology also supports collaboration between researchers. Working in multi-national and interdisciplinary teams allows researchers to combine different perspectives, datasets, and expertise. It also enables peer review, which reduces errors and biases and enhances the reliability of the final output.
When creating a historical reconstruction, we must rely on evidence. In the case of Itiner-e, the maps were based on historical and archaeological sources, such as ancient itineraries (e.g., Antonine Itinerary, Tabula Peutingeriana) and evidence from excavation sites, as well as geolocation data from aerial photography, satellite imagery, and topographic maps. Of course, the level of certainty about the Roman roads also depends on the categories assigned to them - from certain to hypothetical - meaning some are extrapolations from incomplete sources or educated guesses. Therefore, rather than a definitive fact, the reconstruction should be considered as evidence-based models that reflect current knowledge but remain open to revision. As models, they can be more reliable because they integrate large amounts of data, reduce human errors, and allow for greater precision. However, the fact that they are supported by technology does not necessarily mean they are “more true”. They are still limited by the availability of evidence and the computer algorithms that define what constitutes a road and thus guide what the programme seeks.
Yet, even if some of the roads are labelled as hypothetical or conjectured, this information can still enhance historical knowledge. Such data enables historians to explore possibilities, formulate hypotheses, and seek answers where they previously would not, for example, investigating new archaeological sites. However, the nature of the information must be communicated transparently (Itiner-e does this by using labels).
In history, complete certainty is rarely achievable, especially regarding ancient history, where evidence gaps exist. Indeed, historians generally regard their job as interpretative rather than making definitive statements, unlike researchers in the natural sciences. Technology aids in bridging these gaps but cannot replace the evidence itself. However, it can advance historical research by providing new research opportunities.
de Soto, P., Pažout, A., Brughmans, T. et al. Itiner-e: A high-resolution dataset of roads of the Roman Empire. Sci Data 12, 1731 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-025-06140-z