The Ancient Greek Civilisation

Inquiry Statement - Advanced societies at different stages of history can leave a legacy for future societies to study and return to.

Concepts - Democracy, philosophy, significance

Global Context - Orientation in time and space 

The map above was created in 1791^[1] and shows the different areas associated with the Greek civilisations which held significant influence on the world for many years.  Despite the age of the map it provides us with important visual clues about the way that geography would have shaped the lives of the ancient Greeks. 

Critical Thinking Skills - Formulating factual, topical, conceptual and debatable questions

Study the map above. Respond to these three questions either in your note book or on a sticky note. 

• What do you see on the map?
• What does this map make you think about the lives of the ancient Greek civilisations? What do you know already?
• What do you wonder? What questions do you have either connected to the physical geography of the ancient Greeks or the civilisations in general? 

You could compare this map with Google Earth, using the satellite view. This can help with locating Greece before we start to study the different civilisations. Look up the following locations: 

• Knossos, Crete
• Athens
• Mount Olympus
• Peloponnese Region (location of Sparta)
• Troy (tip - type 'ancient city of Troy' - this is a location whose authenticity is debated)
• Delphi
• Marathon
• Thermopylae

As can be seen by studying the maps, the physical geography of the Greek civilisation was defined by the prominence of mountains and the sea. Access to both coastline and high mountains had an impact on the way that ancient Greece developed. When comparing to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, these difference are important to reflect on. This includes the vast array of islands and high mountain ranges which led to a great level of variety across the region. The mountains contributed to these varieties as they effectively cut communities off from each other, increasing the independence of different city states. The Greek civilisation was close to the sea in most directions, including the Mediterranean, Ionian and Aegean seas. Subsequently the Greeks were highly competent seafarers which contributed to the development of trading routes and the expansion of their territories. 

The Minoans

An early example of the development of civilisation in the region was on the island of Crete. This civilisation was known as the Minoans and they were in existence from approximately 2700 to 1450 BCE and would have an influence on later Greek civilisations. A major archaeological site for studying the Minoans is the Palace of Knossos in the north of the island. 

According to Greek legend, Knossos was the location where King Minos lived, the king who kept the labyrinth with the minotaur trapped inside. The story of Theseus slaying the minotaur is one of the most famous of the ancient Greek myths and has impacted popular culture through the depiction of labyrinths and minotaurs in fiction, films and works of art. 

Mycenaean Greece

Spanning from approximately 1750 BCE to 1050 BCE, Mycenaean Greece was established on the mainland of Greece, in contrast to the Minoans, who were mostly concentrated on the island of Crete. They developed the Minoan writing system Linear A into a system known as Linear B. Both of these were important early writing systems, with Linear B providing the earliest known evidence of the Greek language. The Mycenaeans ruled during the later stages of the Bronze Age, and the period that followed is known as the Greek Dark Ages.

During the centuries of their rule, the Mycenaean civilisation established many foundations for later Greek civilisation, including the expansion of trade and innovations in engineering and architecture. They were a military society with an organised social hierarchy.

From the viewpoint of the 21st century, the most famous connection to the Mycenaeans is found within Homer's epic poem, The Iliad, which tells the story of the siege of the city of Troy. Whether Troy actually existed is a matter of debate among scholars. A site in modern-day Turkey has been identified as the location of ancient Troy by archaeologists and has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Greek Dark Ages 

After the Mycenaean era, Greece entered a period that became known as the Greek Dark Ages. This should not be confused with the period after the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, which is also sometimes referred to as the "Dark Ages". The Greek Dark Ages are typically dated between approximately 1100 BCE and 750 BCE.

It was a less prosperous period, during which many of the achievements of the Mycenaeans declined. This included the abandonment of settlements, while many sites and cities fell into ruin. 

By the end of the era, writing had been reintroduced, city-states began to develop again, and Greece entered a new period known as the Archaic Period. During this subsequent period, the Greek alphabet was developed. As mentioned above, the works of Homer are believed to have been composed during the later stages of the Greek Dark Ages or early Archaic Period. 

Homer's Epic Poetry

Homer, the epic poet wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey. These works of literature are widely read today and still provide a fascinating window into the lives of the Ancient Greeks. The film director Christopher Nolan recently released a major movie based on these works. 

It is important to note that these examples of epic poetry are not studied in the same way as a historical sources which would give us more direct factual information about the past. For instance, the Odyssey includes a range of references to mythological creatures, gods and heroes. This includes creatures such as a Cyclops, the Sirens, a monstrous whirlpool called Charybdis and a whole range of Greek gods and goddesses. 

 Aesop's Fables 

There is speculation about the origins of Aesop's fables. It is thought that the different fables were passed down through oral traditions. Each fable typically has a moral or lesson and so may have been used in the education of young people . Examples include 'The lion and the mouse' and the most well known 'The tortoise and the hare'. 

It is thought that Aesop may have been a slave who created these stories as a way of challenging ideas of power and existing hierarchies. There are hundreds of fables contained within the contemporary collection. 

Ancient Greek Theatre 

Another important development in Greek culture was theatre, plays were performed at outdoor venues in semi circular structures. Famous Greek playwrights included Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. Two major forms of Greek theatre developed; tragedy and comedy. Plays were often performed to honour the god Dionysus, the god of theatre and drama (as well as wine!) 

Sophocles was a master of the genre of tragedy. His three Theban plays, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus and Antigone are widely studied today. A short intro to Greek theatre can be accessed in the video below. 

During the Archaic period, the Greek city states developed considerably. These city states became more important centres of trade and developed specific identities. If you remember from the geography section, both the mountains and the sea created a sense of isolation across different parts of ancient Greece. This meant that the city states varied and developed their own identities and cultures. Two examples, which will be discussed here, are the city states of Athens and Sparta.

The city states, known as the polis, which is where the word politics originates from, were important locations for people to meet and discuss ideas for how to govern society. Some of the cities were rigidly hierarchical, while others developed early forms of democracy. The loyalty of the people was to their city, and sometimes the different city states would come into conflict with each other. During the Archaic period, the number of city states increased. Greek expansion occurred further west along the Mediterranean, on the North African coast, and north of Greece into an area called Thrace. The site where Istanbul is today was originally a Greek settlement. The power of Greek civilisation increased with this expansion, alongside the development of trade and an increasingly wealthy merchant class.

Most Greek city states maintained a hierarchy that favoured an oligarchy. This is the rule of the few, a system where a small elite makes the important decisions for everyone. This is different from democracy, which is about more mass involvement in politics and can be described as the rule of the many.

Athens and Sparta highlight these differences well. Look at the profile cards of the two city states below. 

Athens

Athens was not always a democracy, nor should it be viewed in the same way as the democracies that exist nowadays. It had different systems of rule, including monarchy, oligarchy and, finally, democracy. To represent the views of the citizens of Athens, a council and an assembly were set up. Male citizens over the age of 20 could participate. This included the right to debate and vote on laws. Women and slaves were excluded, and it is thought that between 10–20% of the population could take part. Despite these limitations, the development of democracy in Athens was of central importance to the historical development of this more representative form of government. The high point of Athenian democracy came under the rule of Pericles, a time known as the Golden Age of Athens.

Sparta

Sparta was a society based around the importance of the military. Sparta was located in the Sparta was a society based around the importance of the military. Sparta was located in the Peloponnese region. As a city state, it expanded in strength and power by the 4th century BCE. As a militarised society, this was a focus for the education and training of the population. From childhood, boys took on this training and would grow up to be part of the different divisions of the Spartan military. This included the phalanx, which was a division that fought in a rectangular formation that was effective in battle. Women had responsibility for looking after children and the home but, given the military duties of men, they had more freedoms than women in other areas of Greece. Overall, Sparta was a hierarchy that was strictly controlled, involving censorship, and was quite different from Athens. The two states came into conflict with each other during the Peloponnesian War from 431–404 BCE.

The Greco-Persian Wars

Herodotus was an early example of a historian.  His book 'the Histories' detailed the wars between Greece and Persia which took place during the 5th century BCE and forms a record which can be accessed by scholars today to examine the impact that the wars had on the Greeks. The following information and activities are about two famous battles between the Greeks and Persians. The first battle at Marathon and the second at Thermopylae. These activities use the writings of Herodotus to help us to gain a more authentic sense of how the battles have been described and written about.

The victory at Marathon was important for the city state of Athens. A second famous battle between the Greeks and Persians took place at Thermopylae in 480 BCE. The Persians, by this time led by Xerxes, fought a unified group of city states led by the Spartans. During the battle, the Persians were held off by the Greeks at the pass of Thermopylae for seven days, despite being heavily outnumbered. Spartan warriors were noted for their bravery in this battle. The Greeks were eventually outflanked by the Persians after a traitor told them of a different route through the mountains. While the Spartans had led the defence at Thermopylae, the Athenians had mounted a naval war against the Persians. Due to the loss of Thermopylae, the Persians were able to briefly take over Athens, which had been evacuated. Despite temporarily losing control of Athens, the Greek city states were able to unite again and defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE and a naval victory at Salamis in 480 BCE. After the defeat of the Persians, Athens entered a golden age where many developments occurred that gave the city its reputation as a centre of learning and democracy.

The Peloponnesian War

We have already found out that the Greek city states came into conflict with each other from time to time, most famously between Athens and Sparta during the Peloponnesian War. Due to the amount of conflict that occurred, Greek city states developed their armies accordingly. The war between these two great city states began in 431 BCE and lasted for decades. The early stages of the war saw the Spartans launching attacks on Athens, who took on a siege approach by defending itself behind its walls. During the years of war, Athens also suffered from an outbreak of plague, which weakened the city considerably due to the loss of life. Over the years, both city states were weakened by these wars, and they led to an end of the Golden Age of Athens, which had begun after the defeat of the Persians.

A short summary of the war from National Geographic can be read at this link. The wars between Athens and Sparta were written about by another Greek historian, Thucydides who wrote 'The History of the Peloponnesian War'. 

We have already discussed Greek literature and theatre as well as the history writing of Herodotus and Thucydides. In this section other areas of Greek cultural life will be considered.

Religion 

Greek religion was dominated by the role of numerous different gods, which provided a mythology for people to discuss and examine. The religion was polytheistic, meaning that there was a belief in multiple gods and goddesses. The most famous of the gods were the twelve Olympian Greek gods. They are Zeus, Athena, Hera, Aphrodite, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, Apollo and Artemis. Sometimes Dionysus is included as well. They were said to control different areas of life and the world, each often representing a particular aspect. For example, Apollo was the god of music, prophecy, healing and the arts, Athena, the goddess of wisdom. 

They were said to take on human characteristics, both physically (as shown in the picture here) and through a range of emotions, being capable of anger, jealousy, but also love. The gods were worshipped in temples throughout the Greek city states and provided inspiration for Greek art, literature and education. The Olympic Games originated in Ancient Greece and were held every four years in honour of Zeus.

Philosophy

One of the greatest contributions of the Greeks to knowledge was in their development of philosophy. Philosophy is a discipline which invites thinking based around a whole manner of questions about what it means to be human, how to live in the world and what is the nature of existence. It is often divided into branches concerning ethics (which deals with morality), epistemology (which deals with knowledge) and metaphysics (which deals with the nature of reality). The earliest Greek philosophers were chiefly concerned with metaphysics and asked questions about the make up and structure of the world. Later on, three famous philosophers would expand the inquiry into many areas of discussion which are significant to this day. They are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. 

Socrates	Plato	Aristotle
'The unexamined life is not worth living' Although Socrates never wrote anything his significant influence on the development of philosophy was communicated by his student Plato. Socrates is most famously known for the Socratic Method. A form of dialogue which looks to uncover greater precision and accuracy through questioning and interrogation. This method provided the foundations for the development of logic and reason as cornerstones of rational thought. Due to this questioning approach Socrates came into conflict with the authorities of the time and was sentenced to death by drinking poisoned hemlock.	'One of the penalties of refusing to participate in politics is that you end up being governed by your inferiors.' The work of Plato forms a major part of ancient Greek philosophy. A number of his writings have survived. A famous work called 'The Republic'  sets out the features of an ideal state. This is an example of political philosophy and it presents the idea of a utopia. Critics of Plato see his ideas as undemocratic and elitist. Plato also came up with the idea of the Forms, this presents the world as merely a reflection of perfect forms that exist out of reach in another reality. One of the most famous teachings of Plato is the Allegory of the Cave. Watch the video below and discuss what you think the whole story is about.	'Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom.' Aristotle's life story is clouded with uncertainty but we know that he was a student of Plato at his school, the Academy in Athens for many years. His contributions to philosophy are significant. With contributions ranging from the importance of friendship through to early systems of biological classification. Aristotle's influence has affected multiple areas of knowledge from the sciences through to morality. One of his most famous texts, the Nicomachean Ethics, a series of lecture notes provides insights from Aristotle on a wide range of issues. He was concerned with ways that people can live a flourishing life and in recent times his work has been of interest to education researchers looking to consider ways to improve schools.

If you study a map of Europe today you will see that to the northern border of Greece lies the country of North Macedonia. Macedonia played a very important role in the later stages of Ancient Greek civilisation. It had traditionally been less powerful than its neighbours to the south such as the city states of Athens and Sparta. However, Macedonia gradually developed into a powerful kingdom. 

Alexander the Great pictured above was a Macedonian. After 338 BCE the Greek civilisation came under the unified control of the Macedonians. This was carried out under the leadership of Alexander 's father Philip II but after he was assassinated Alexander inherited this empire and assumed control. 

Alexander the Great was well suited to the role of military leader. He was given an education which included being tutored by Aristotle which gave him experience of many different areas of knowledge. He was taught about military strategy and developed ambitions to expand the territory of his Kingdom. This included looking to the East, especially towards Persia as an area for conquest. 

Over the subsequent years of his rule he was ver successful in these conquests. Large areas of Asia Minor (areas which would include Türkiye, Iraq, Syria, Iran and as far east as Pakistan) and Egypt came under his control. In Egypt the city of Alexandria was set up and became a great centre of learning in this area of the world. The library at Alexandria was extensive and became a renowned centre of study. 

Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE but his legacy lived on in an era known as the Hellenistic World. 'Hellenistic' meaning to relate or connect to Greece was the term used for states influence by Greek thought and culture in the years after Alexander the Great. It included Ptolemaic Egypt which is discussed in the Egyptian Civilisations unit. The Hellenistic Wold was divided into separate states as shown in the map below. They developed many further achievements in mathematics, geometry, architecture, literature, theatre and philosophy. All of the states were eventually conquered by Rome.