Types of Violent Conflict
Introduction to Types of Violent Conflict
Understanding global conflicts requires differentiating between symmetric and asymmetric warfare. Symmetric warfare involves states with comparable military strengths using traditional combat methods. In contrast, asymmetric warfare sees unequal powers engaging, with the weaker side often resorting to unconventional tactics to compensate for their disadvantage. This framework is important in analyzing conflict forms, including guerrilla warfare, counterinsurgency, terrorism, and cyber warfare. One of the outcomes of violent conflict is the impact it has on vulnerable groups. Civilians, particularly women, children, and individuals with disabilities, bear the brunt of violence, facing heightened risks and long-term repercussions. Recognizing the dynamics of asymmetric conflict and its effects on these groups is essential for understanding the broader implications of contemporary conflicts.
| Prescribed Topic | Prescribed Content |
| Nature, practice and study of conflict | Types of conflict: inter-, intra-, non- and extra-state conflicts |
| Interactions of political stakeholders and actors | Marginalized, vulnerable and most affected groups and individuals |
Before you begin the reading for this topic, we're going to get you thinking about asymmetric (uneven) conflict. In these conflicts, one side is much stronger than the other, so the weaker side often relies on unconventional tactics such as guerrilla warfare or terrorism.
Choose one group that has been active in the last 20 years from Stanford's Mapping Militants Project and answer the following prompts.
- Where does the group operate, and when did it form?
- What tactics does it use, and who or what does it target?
- What are its grievances and goals?
- Why might a group like this choose terrorism or guerrilla tactics instead of conventional warfare?
- Has the group been designated a terrorist organization? Check the lists published by at least two governments, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, or Australia. If the lists differ, why might that be?
Instructions: Read the lesson content and answer the applying prompts that follow the readings. To access the lesson content topics or sections below, click the “+” sign to expand the box and the “-” sign to close them.
To understand violent conflict, we need to differentiate between symmetric and asymmetric warfare. Symmetric warfare sees state armies with comparable military capabilities, strategies, and tactics clashing in what can be viewed as traditional warfare—asymmetric conflict, on the other hand, pits states of unequal power against each other. The weaker state may resort to unconventional methods or require support from external entities to stand a chance against a more powerful adversary.
The progression of asymmetric conflict can be outlined in stages inspired by Curle's 1971 framework (see image below). It starts with 'conscientization,' a stage where individuals or groups become aware of their grievances and organize themselves to voice these issues effectively. This leads to confrontation, where the aggrieved party challenges those in power, seeking change. Negotiation follows, with both sides looking for resolutions that aim toward fairness and equity. Finally, resolution is sought to rebalance the relationship, striving for a situation where justice and a more peaceful coexistence are possible.
SOURCE: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-progression-of-constructive-conflict-in-unbalanced-relationships-adapted-from-Curle_fig2_329610826
Another approach to addressing asymmetric conflicts involves empowering the weaker state to either exit the imbalanced relationship altogether or fundamentally restructure it.
Understanding the distinction between symmetric and asymmetric conflict creates a foundation for discussing forms of violent conflict, including guerrilla warfare, counterinsurgency strategies, and the implications of terrorism and cyber warfare. As we move forward, keep the distinction between the two forms of conflict in mind and how asymmetric conflict is manifested in the various forms we will explore.
Guerrilla Warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a common approach within asymmetric conflicts. It is characterized by small, mobile groups of fighters employing hit-and-run tactics against larger, conventional military forces. These guerrilla groups leverage their intimate knowledge of local terrain and support from local populations to counter the strengths of more traditional armies. This form of warfare often leads to a protracted (long and drawn out) conflict that aims to wear down the opponent through attrition, disrupting their supply chains, communication lines, and infrastructure.
COIN
Counterinsurgency, or COIN, is the response to an insurgency, which is essentially a rebellion against a state authority. COIN strategies aim to not only militarily defeat the insurgency but also to win over the population's "hearts and minds." This involves both military and civil efforts to protect the population, gain their confidence, and address any grievances that may have fueled the insurgency. A successful COIN operation requires distinguishing combatants from non-combatants, a task made challenging as insurgents often blend with the civilian population. These operations demand a long-term commitment to advisory, financial, and military support to ensure lasting peace and stability.
Terrorism is one of the most infamous types of asymmetric warfare, often bringing violence directly to non-combatants through surprise attacks and guerrilla tactics. Its visibility is heightened by targeting public and highly visible locations, aiming to instill fear and uncertainty among the populace. This form of violence seeks to provoke change, prevent change, or highlight issues, with terrorists sometimes exaggerating their strength to amplify their cause.
Types of Terrorism
- Insurrectionary terrorism aims to change or overthrow state leadership
- Issue terrorism: aims to promote a single cause
- Global terrorism – aims to damage or humiliate a global power or to transform global leadership and relations.
Motivations Behind Terrorism
Terrorist motivations are diverse, ranging from political objectives like overthrowing governments or changing policies to religious goals of establishing states or advancing specific traditions. Ideological, nationalist, or separatist motivations seek to promote social ideologies or gain independence for ethnic groups. Eco-terrorism targets actors deemed harmful to the environment. Together, this reflects the broad spectrum of motivations that drive terrorist actions.
Narco-Terrorism
Narco terrorism merges traditional terrorist aims with the economic motives of drug trafficking. This blend creates a complex threat that employs terror to intimidate, control territory, manipulate populations, and fund further activities, intertwining political extremism with criminal gain.
Rationale for Terrorism
The justification for terrorism is deeply contested. Advocates argue that it's a means to draw attention to critical issues when no other options seem viable, even at the cost of innocent lives. However, the effectiveness and morality of terrorism are also contested, probably even more so. Many argue there's no justification for acts that harm civilians. Terrorism often fails to garner the broad support necessary for lasting change, potentially alienating sympathizers and struggling to find widespread appeal due to the radical nature of its causes.
Addressing Terrorism
Terrorists target civilians, government officials, military personnel, infrastructure, and religious sites to create fear, disrupt economies, and provoke conflict. Counter-terrorism strategies encompass education to deradicalize extremist beliefs, legal measures like enhanced border controls, socio-economic efforts to address disparities that may be leading to acts of terrorism, and international cooperation for information sharing and prevention.
Cyber Dimensions of Asymmetric Warfare
Regarding cyber warfare, state or state-sponsored actors target other states to gain strategic advantages, engage in espionage, disrupt military operations, or damage economic and political capacities. This form of conflict also focuses on military and strategic objectives, including military networks and critical national infrastructure.
Non-state actors or terrorist groups engage in acts of cyber terrorism, aiming to disrupt civilian infrastructure, create fear, and achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives. Targets often include civilian entities like financial systems and public services, with motives focused on intimidation, propaganda dissemination, or societal destabilization.
Cyberterrorism and cyber warfare are similar in their asymmetric nature. It allows actors with limited resources to launch significant attacks against more technologically advanced or larger opponents. As global interconnectivity increases, the potential for cyber warfare to impact economies, politics, and society escalates.
Review this article from Foreign Policy Magazine on Cyber Conflict and answer the following questions.
- Why are cyberattacks difficult to stop/easy to carry out?
- Why are cyberattacks an effective "short of war" approach to conflict?
- What are some of the different types of cyberattacks?
- While the direct costs are expensive, so are many of the indirect costs. What are some of these costs?
- Why have sanctions been ineffective in combating cyberattacks?
- The article suggests taking a liberal approach with a greater focus on multiple stakeholders. Why do the authors suggest this approach?
If you have access to Foreign Affairs magazine through either a subscription or a magazine database, check out this article by Joseph Nye on international cyber agreements or this article by Dmirti Alperovitch.
Here are possible answers to these questions:
1. Why are cyberattacks difficult to stop/easy to carry out?
- Cyberattacks leverage the anonymity and vastness of the digital world, allowing perpetrators to hide their identities and locations. The global nature of the internet means attackers can operate from any jurisdiction, complicating legal responses.
- The barrier to entry for launching cyberattacks has significantly decreased due to readily available hacking tools and the sharing of vulnerabilities within the cybercriminal community.
- The complexity and interconnectedness of modern digital infrastructure increase the number of potential vulnerabilities, making it challenging to defend against every possible attack.
2. Why are cyberattacks an effective "short of war" approach to conflict?
- They enable states to exert influence, disrupt adversaries, and achieve strategic objectives without resorting to open warfare, minimizing the risk of direct military confrontation.
- Cyberattacks can be targeted and discreet, allowing states to deny involvement, thereby reducing the risk of retaliation.
- They can inflict significant economic and psychological impacts, eroding confidence in the target nation’s government and institutions and potentially destabilizing societies.
3. What are some of the different types of cyberattacks?
- Mis and disinformation campaigns: Spread false information to manipulate public opinion or destabilize societies.
- Ransomware attacks: Encrypt victims' data to extort payment.
- Intellectual Property (IP) theft: Steal sensitive data from governments and businesses.
- Surveillance: Monitor and collect data on individuals, organizations, or governments.
- Supply chain attacks: Target suppliers or software dependencies to compromise the final targets.
4. While the direct costs are expensive, so are many of the indirect costs. What are some of these costs?
- There are long-term economic impacts from disrupted businesses, such as loss of consumer trust, increased insurance premiums, and potential market instability.
- Costs associated with strengthening cybersecurity post-attack, including technology upgrades and training.
- Societal costs, such as the erosion of public trust in institutions and the potential for increased polarization due to misinformation campaigns.
5. Why have sanctions been ineffective in combating cyberattacks?
- The difficulty in attributing cyberattacks to specific actors or states complicates the enforcement of sanctions.
- Sanctions may not deter actors who are insulated from their effects or who can leverage alternative economic systems and technologies.
- The internet's global and interconnected nature allows cybercriminals to easily circumvent sanctions through proxies or by operating within jurisdictions that do not enforce them.
6. The article suggests taking a liberal approach with a greater focus on multiple stakeholders. Why do the authors suggest this approach?
- A multistakeholder approach recognizes that the complexity of cybersecurity challenges transcends national borders and requires the collaboration of governments, the private sector, and civil society to address them effectively.
- This approach can leverage the unique strengths and perspectives of each group, from government regulatory power to the technical expertise of the private sector and the advocacy and accountability driven by civil society.
- By involving a broad range of stakeholders, the international community can develop more comprehensive and resilient strategies for preventing, mitigating, and responding to cyber threats.
Understanding these dynamics helps us as we consider specific strategies to mitigate the impact of conflict on civilians, particularly vulnerable groups and individuals. In recent civil wars, a significant portion of both government forces and rebel groups have deliberately targeted civilians. This strategy is employed for various reasons, including for the purposes of seizing territory, punishing populations for perceived alliances with the enemy, or exerting pressure on opposing forces by affecting civilian morale. The deliberate targeting of civilians as a strategy underscores the brutal reality of modern conflicts, where the distinction between combatant and non-combatant is increasingly blurred.
The legal and ethical frameworks governing warfare, such as the Geneva Conventions, emphasize the principles of distinction, proportionality, and precaution to protect civilians. These principles mandate that combatants distinguish between military and civilian targets (distinction)and ensure that the harm inflicted on civilian populations is not excessive in relation to the anticipated military advantage (proportionality). Furthermore, parties to conflict need to take precautions to avoid civilians and vulnerable groups. Despite these regulations, the reality on the ground often reflects a different picture, with civilians frequently caught in the crossfire and suffering the consequences of strategic decisions made by warring parties.
The indirect effects of violent conflict on civilian populations are significant. Beyond the immediate casualties, conflicts often lead to significant humanitarian crises, including hunger and poverty. The destruction of infrastructure and the disruption of agriculture and markets can plunge entire regions into food insecurity. In contrast, the destruction of homes, factories, and healthcare facilities contributes to a cycle of poverty and disease that can persist long after the conflict has ended.
Children and other vulnerable groups also face risks during conflicts. Children may be recruited as soldiers, suffer from violence, or lose access to essential services like education and healthcare. The targeting of schools and hospitals is a violation of international laws designed to protect the most vulnerable.
Sexual violence in conflict zones is a particularly heinous weapon of war that targets women and girls disproportionately, although men and boys can also be victims. This form of violence serves multiple nefarious purposes: it is used to terrorize and demoralize communities, break the social fabric, and, sometimes, as part of a strategy of ethnic cleansing. The repercussions for the victims are devastating, beyond the immediate physical and psychological trauma there may be long-term social stigmatization and economic hardship.
In terms of individuals with disabilities, conflicts exacerbate their vulnerability. People with disabilities often face significant barriers during conflicts, including accessing safe areas, receiving humanitarian aid, and finding refuge. The destruction of infrastructure can limit their mobility and access to necessary care, while the chaos of conflict zones may lead them to be overlooked by aid efforts. Furthermore, the breakdown of social structures during conflicts can leave individuals with disabilities without the family or community support they depend on.
The impact of violent conflict on vulnerable groups underscores the human cost of conflicts and the need for conflict resolution and post-conflict recovery.
Complete the following questions based on the conflict you have been researching as part of the other topics in our thematic study of Peace and Conflict.
- What elements of the conflict you are studying are symmetrical? asymmetrical?
- What COIN approaches have been adopted?
- After reading the section on terrorism, return to the organization designated a terrorist group by the United States from the activating activity as the start of this topic.
- What type of terrorism is it?
- What seem to be the motivations?
- What rationale do the terrorists have?
- What steps have been taken to stamp out the terrorist group you are researching?
- Research an incident of cyber conflict (warfare or terrorism). Complete a W5 based on the research you have undertaken.
- Research the case you have been studying or a new case of your choosing on the Uppsala Conflict Data Program. How many fatalities occurred as part of state-based violence and non-state violence? You may also want to click on the "download charts, graphs and maps" button here and wait for it to load. What generalization might you be able to draw from this information or any of the other charts and graphs you looked at?
- Return to the conflict you have been studying. To what degree has the conflict caused hunger and/or poverty?
- Research the impact the conflict has had on vulnerable groups:
- Women
- Children
- People with disabilities
Child Soldiers
Start the discussion on child soldiers by showing the first four videos in this presentation. After showing the videos, encourage students to discuss how these stories have resonated with them. Please preview the videos before showing them to ensure they are appropriate for your context:
An Inquiry into Child Soldiers
Before we start this inquiry, in groups of three, each group member will choose one of Lionel, Agnes, or Marie's stories. When you finish reading the short story, share it with your group partners and consider: What are some common causes of children being manipulated or forced into becoming soldiers?
Using the resources that follow, research the answer to the prompts below in preparation for a class discussion focused on how to prevent the practice of using child soldiers.
- What is the definition of a child soldier?
- How do children become child soldiers?
- Why are there child soldiers?
- In what ways does the use of child soldiers violate international law?
- How do we stop the practice of using child soldiers?
Resources
- ICRC Report on Child Soldiers
- Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: Why Child Soldiering Persists in Africa
- Save The Children
- Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary General of the United Nations for Children and Armed Conflict (be patient; this page tends to take a while to load)
- Amnesty International
- World Vision
Students can go in different directions with some of the questions based on which resource they focus on the most. However, here are some possible answers.
1. What is the definition of a child soldier? A child soldier is any individual under 18 who has been recruited or used by an armed force or group in any capacity. This includes fighters, cooks, porters, messengers, and those used for sexual purposes. It also encompasses children involved in support roles, such as spies, messengers, and those involved in logistical operations.
2. How do children become child soldiers? Children become child soldiers through a variety of means, including abduction, coercion, manipulation, economic necessity, and societal pressure. Voluntary enlistment often occurs in contexts of poverty, lack of education, and broken social systems, where joining an armed group may seem like the only viable option for survival or stability. Forced recruitment and enticement by armed groups exploit these vulnerabilities.
3. Why are there child soldiers? The use of child soldiers persists due to systemic issues such as ongoing conflicts, socio-economic pressures, and the breakdown of law and order. Armed groups exploit children for perceived advantages: children are often more obedient, less aware of their rights, and easier to manipulate than adults. These factors are compounded in settings where educational and economic opportunities are severely limited.
4. In what ways does the use of child soldiers violate international law? Recruiting and using child soldiers is a violation of international law, specifically contravening the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Optional Protocols, as well as being one of the six grave violations against children in conflict as identified by the UN Security Council. These laws prohibit any recruitment or use of children under 18 in hostilities.
5. How do we stop the practice of using child soldiers? Stopping the use of child soldiers requires a multifaceted approach, including
- Strengthening and enforcement of international and national laws against child recruitment and use in conflicts.
- Monitoring and reporting mechanisms are crucial for accountability.
- Community-based prevention strategies
- Improving access to education and economic development reduces vulnerabilities that lead to child recruitment.
- Rehabilitation and reintegration programs supported by international cooperation and funding are essential for helping former child soldiers reintegrate into society and rebuild their lives.
Why Terrorism?
In The Jihadist, Abu Mohammad al-Jolani, a former Al Qaeda commander who is designated a terrorist by the United States, is interviewed by an American journalist for the documentary program Frontline. Watch the documentary and complete the guiding questions below.
This video can also be accessed directly from the Frontline website.
Guiding Questions
- Why has al-Jolani adopted terrorism as an approach to conflict? What rationale does he provide?
- Why do you think the correspondent faced backlash as a result of doing the interview?
- Do you think the interview was an effective approach for al-Jolani?
- Research al-Jolani and where he is today.
Visit the Global Terrorism Index map and scroll down to read the key findings from the most recent report. Based on what you learned from the index, the reading, and the documentary about terrorism and asymmetric conflict, in groups, develop three one— to two-sentence policy statements for addressing the issue of terrorism in the world today.
This is a possible set of responses to the guiding questions above:
- Why has al-Jolani adopted terrorism as an approach to conflict? What rationale does he provide? Al-Jolani, having waged jihad in Iraq and Syria and accused of terror and torture, claims to have adopted terrorism initially as part of his allegiance to al-Qaeda and his battles against American forces in Iraq, as well as deploying suicide bombers in Syria. His rationale appears to stem from a combination of ideological commitment to jihadist principles and a strategic attempt to fight against perceived oppressors, particularly in the context of the U.S. invasion of Iraq and the Assad regime in Syria. Over time, his approach evolves as he seeks to distance himself from al-Qaeda and rebrand his organization, suggesting a shift in tactics while still maintaining a form of armed struggle.
- Why do you think the correspondent faced backlash as a result of doing the interview? The correspondent likely faced backlash for several reasons: interviewing a designated terrorist might be seen as giving a platform to extremism, legitimizing Jolani's actions or narrative, and potentially endangering security by spreading terrorist propaganda. Additionally, by engaging with a figure like Jolani, the correspondent might be criticized for not adequately challenging his rebranding efforts or for overlooking the victims of Jolani's organization's actions.
- Do you think the interview was an effective approach for al-Jolani? The interview could be seen as an effective approach for al-Jolani in several ways. It allowed him an international platform to present his rebranding efforts, argue for a shift in his and his organization's image from terrorists to legitimate political actors, and possibly seek to reduce his designation as a terrorist by international actors. However, the effectiveness of this approach would largely depend on the audience's reception and whether they are persuaded by his narrative, as well as the geopolitical context and interests of international stakeholders in Syria.
This article from the Guardian, "Russia’s war with Ukraine accelerating global climate emergency, report shows," examines the climate impacts of Russia's ongoing war in Ukraine. It highlights that the conflict's emissions in just two years exceeded those of many countries' annual outputs.
As you read the article, consider the following guiding questions:
Guiding Questions
- The article lists several sources of emissions related to the conflict, such as military operations and infrastructure damage. Which source do you think is the hardest to control during a conflict, and why?
- The article points out the lack of global standards for reporting military emissions. What steps could be taken to improve accountability in this area? What are the potential obstacles and advantages of such measures?
