InThinking Subject Sites

Subscription websites for IB teachers & their classes

Find out more


Sitemap
Recommendations
Other subjects
Brochure

Disclaimer: InThinking subject sites are neither endorsed by nor connected with the International Baccalaureate Organisation.

Student access tools
 You need to log-in or subscribe in order to use Student access.

Introduction to Development

Introducing the Topic

Introduction to Defining Development and Rationale for Development

Development is a complex concept that extends beyond economic growth to include various aspects of human well-being and societal progress. Definitions of development vary, often reflecting different priorities and perspectives. This topic explores the broad and sometimes contested definitions of development, examining ethical reasons for engaging in development activities, such as reducing poverty and promoting global justice. Additionally, we will explore the key dimensions of development: economic, environmental, political, and social factors. Understanding these dimensions helps us appreciate the interplay between different aspects of development and their challenges and opportunities. 

Prescribed TopicPrescribed Content
Contested meanings

Development

Nature, practice and study of development and sustainability

Dimensions of development:

  • Economic factors
  • Environmental factors 
  • Political factors
  • Social factors

Activating

As you watch the documentary "Human," reflect on the personal stories and experiences shared by individuals from different backgrounds. Consider how these stories relate to broader political, social, institutional and economic development themes. 

  1. This documentary has a lot of stories and visual stimuli. Choose four stories or visual imagery that reflect a gap in the areas of political, social, institutional and economic development. Choose a different story for each area of development (that's why you need four). Describe the individual's circumstances or the imagery and explain how the imagery or their experiences illustrate the challenges and/or opportunities related to development.
  2. What stories or imagery best exemplified for you what the following mean:
    • Development
    • Inequality
    • Poverty
  3. Based on the issues raised in the documentary, what are some potential strategies or solutions that could address the challenges faced by the individuals or images that resonated with you? Consider the roles of different actors, such as governments, non-governmental organizations, and communities.
  4. How has this documentary influenced your understanding of human development? Do you feel inspired to make a change, or do you feel handcuffed by the magnitude of the action that is needed? Are there any actions you can personally take to contribute to positive change in your own community or globally?
 Teacher only box

The video is cued up to 1h 21m 05s already. This is the Director's Cut and is over three hours without starting it midway. You might want to show 10 or 15 minutes at the start of each class; this has worked well in the past and is a good introduction each day to exploring development and sustainability issues. Above are four prompts students can reflect on during and after watching the documentary.  

Lesson Content

Watch the following introduction to global stratification and poverty and complete the guiding questions below.

Guiding Questions

  1. What is GDP and GNI?
  2. What are the distinctions between the following types of stratification 
    • High income
    • Upper middle income
    • Lower middle income
    • Low income
  3. What is the difference between absolute and relative poverty?
  4. Why are women and children particularly affected by absolute poverty?
  5. How do colonialism and neocolonialism differ?

Issues to consider: 

  • Technology has been seen to be problematic as much as it is helpful
  • Overpopulation has been dismissed by many theorists as a cause of poverty.
  • Ignores that our current system may not be set up so everyone can benefit. Environmentally, is it even sustainable?
  • Poverty is getting better—by some metrics, including the ones she mentions. However, as Jason Hickel explains, there are many areas where things are getting worse for most of the world.
 Teacher only box

Here are some possible answers to these questions:

1. What is GDP and GNI?

  • GDP (Gross Domestic Product) measures a country's total output. It includes all goods and services produced within a country annually.
  • GNI (Gross National Income) measures GDP per capita. It takes a country's total output (GDP) and divides it by the population, providing an average income per person.

2. What are the distinctions between the following types of stratification: High income, Upper middle income, Lower middle income, and Low income?

  • High Income: Countries with GNI above $12,500 per year. These countries, such as the US, the UK, and Germany, have high standards of living, highly urbanized populations, advanced infrastructure, and significant industrial and technological sectors.
  • Upper Middle Income: Countries with GNI between $4,000 and $12,500 annually. Examples include China, Mexico, and Russia. These countries have advancing economies with both manufacturing and high-tech industries and good public infrastructure.
  • Lower Middle Income: Countries with GNI between $1,000 and $4,000 annually, such as India, Ukraine, and Guatemala. These economies are a mix of manufacturing and natural resource-based, with only 40% of people living in urban areas and limited access to quality healthcare and education.
  • Low Income: Countries with GNI less than $1,000 per year. These countries, like many in sub-Saharan Africa, are primarily rural, with economies based on agriculture. They face significant challenges, including high rates of disease, poor healthcare and education systems, and a lack of basic necessities like food and clean water.

3. What is the difference between absolute and relative poverty?

  • Absolute Poverty is when a lack of resources is life-threatening. It includes situations where people cannot meet basic needs such as food, clean water, shelter, and healthcare.
  • Relative Poverty: This exists in all societies and refers to individuals whose standard of living is lower than that of the majority of the population. It means being poor relative to the wealth and income levels of others in the same society.

4. Why are women and children particularly affected by absolute poverty?

  • Children: They face severe consequences of poverty, including malnutrition, homelessness, and hazardous work conditions. Many children are orphans or engaged in child labour, and child malnutrition is especially prevalent in South Asia and Africa.
  • Women: They make up 70% of those living in absolute poverty. Cultural and religious beliefs often restrict women's employment; even when they work, they may not control their earnings. Women in low-income countries produce a significant portion of the food, but men typically own the land. Poor reproductive healthcare access also leads to higher birth rates, contributing to more child poverty and greater economic strain on families.

5. How do colonialism and neocolonialism differ?

  • Colonialism is the historical process by which powerful nations took political and economic control over other regions, extracting resources and wealth for their own benefit. For example, Western Europe colonized much of Latin America, Africa, and Asia, enriching itself while exploiting these regions.
  • Neocolonialism refers to the modern form of economic exploitation by powerful corporations rather than direct political control. Corporations exert economic pressure on poorer countries to operate under conditions favourable to them, often at the expense of the local population. This involves maintaining economic dominance through business practices and financial influence rather than through direct governance.

Instructions: To access the lesson content topics or sections below, click the “+” sign to expand the box and the “-” sign to close them. 

What is Development?

Defining Development

Like many of the other contested terms we have explored in our course and as part of this thematic study, what "development" means is debated and contested. There are disagreements about what development means, the best ways to achieve it, and whether it is worth pursuing. In today's context, development is often equated with economic growth; however, as we will see, development means more than just economic growth to many international development scholars. Studying development involves understanding the unique and shared paths that lead to differing levels of human progress and well-being.

Development, often perceived as providing basic needs like food, shelter, and clothing, is a concept that goes far beyond these necessities. It encompasses many elements, prompting us to question whether education and respect for human rights should also be considered fundamental. Understanding this dynamic nature of development is important, as it broadens our perspective on development.

One approach to understanding development is historical analysis, which explores how past societies' actions and injustices have shaped current conditions of poverty and prosperity. This perspective suggests that today's disparities are deeply rooted in historical contexts, requiring an appreciation of past events to fully understand present challenges.

The term "development" gained prominence from US President Harry Truman’s 1949 Inaugural Address, which spoke of "underdeveloped areas." This terminology not only introduced a way to measure and compare nations' progress but also implied a need for intervention by more "developed" nations to assist those less advanced. This has historically framed development as a linear process of achieving a set standard of economic and social conditions, often guided by external influences.

Truman’s Fourth Point

We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. More than half of the people of the world are living in conditions approaching misery. Their food is inadequate, they are victims of disease. Their economic life is primitive and stagnant. Their poverty is a handicap and a threat both to them and more prosperous areas. For the first time in history, humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering of these people ... our imponderable resources in technical knowledge are constantly growing and are inexhaustible .... The old imperialism-exploitation for foreign profit has no place in our plans.

This was the fourth foreign policy goal President Truman outlined in his Inaugural Address and, therefore, has become known as his "Point 4."

- Source: Inaugural Address, President Harry S. Truman, 20 January 1949, in Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States.

Some development theories argue that capitalism's inherent logic necessitates a divide where certain countries remain impoverished while others prosper. This viewpoint argues that economic structures are designed to benefit some states at the expense of others, perpetuating a cycle of inequality.

Another challenge related to international development is that it's hard to measure because it involves many factors. People don't always agree on what should count as progress. Common measures include GDP for economic growth, literacy, and life expectancy, which are used in the Human Development Index (HDI). But these indicators have their limits and can't capture everything about development.

Some thinkers, like Arturo Escobar, argue that the colonial origins of development cast doubt on the validity of development altogether. They highlight how development interventions in non-Western societies have often been destructive rather than beneficial. As critics like Gilbert Rist have pointed out, development can sometimes worsen conditions rather than improve lives. Rist describes development as a "toxic word" because it often leads to environmental degradation and the disruption of social bonds, transforming natural and human resources into economic commodities. He believes that development discourse legitimizes the global spread of capitalism while hiding its harmful effects on people.

Development isn't just about numbers or simple definitions. It relates to broader issues like sustainability, poverty, and inequality, and understanding it fully requires considering many different factors and perspectives.

Global Stratification Terminology

Is it possible for international relations theories to fully explain economic underdevelopment? Even experts in international relations struggle with how to refer to countries formerly under European colonial rule. The term "Third World" was once useful. Coined in 1952 by French demographer Alfred Sauvy, it drew a parallel to France's Third Estate before the revolution in that it suggested a social and economic order: "First World" countries had capitalist economies, "Second World" countries like those in the Soviet bloc had planned economies, and "Third World" countries, lacking industrial bases, primarily exported raw materials. However, this three-part division became less relevant after the Cold War ended.

Options

Previously, "Third World" was a preferable term compared to others like "underdeveloped" or "less developed countries" found in literature about regions like Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America. Another commonly used term is "Global South," which contrasts with "Global North," referring to former colonial powers. However, not every country in the Global South is poor, and not every former colonial power is wealthy. Wealth and poverty exist across both groups.

Theorists face another issue: what does "development" actually mean? It might refer to industrial output and economic transactions. If so, it suggests that aiming for industrialization is ideal. Yet, issues like global climate change indicate the drawbacks of traditional industrialization. Furthermore, some definitions of development overlook non-monetary transactions such as bartering or activities often undertaken by women, like home gardening or childcare, which aren't easily quantified in monetary terms but are vital economically.

Regardless of the labels—Third World, Global South, or LDCs—many of these countries continue to face significant challenges with poverty and hunger.

Rationale for International Development

Global Ethics and International Development

It is often assumed that taking action on inequality, improving well-being and stamping out poverty — international development — are good and acceptable moral obligations. However, the idea that we should actively combat poverty is not universally accepted. Even among those who agree that action is necessary, there is significant debate about how to justify addressing global poverty and what actions should be taken. 

At the heart of international development is a fundamental question: Do our moral responsibilities extend beyond our families, neighbours, and fellow citizens?

In the 1900s, most Western countries developed social support systems, known as social welfare systems, to ensure that no citizen faced severe deprivation due to poverty. These systems aimed to provide a safety net for all citizens. While social welfare is common in many developed countries, there is no global equivalent to ensure basic needs and security for everyone through wealth redistribution and universal public services.

Despite this, many believe basic human rights and security should apply to all individuals, regardless of location. This perspective has shifted discussions about justice from a national focus to a global one and has resulted in considering the principles of distributive justice on an international scale.

Utilitarian Rationale for Global Redistribution

Peter Singer (2002) makes an argument for why justice requires us to prevent needless and extreme suffering, no matter where it occurs, via his “Drowning Child” analogy:

Imagine walking to school and seeing a young child fall into a pond. The child is in danger of drowning, and you can easily save her without putting yourself at risk. However, saving her would mean getting your clothes and shoes dirty, going home and changing, and being late for school. Despite these inconveniences, our moral instincts tell us that we should save the child’s life. Ignoring her and walking away would be seriously wrong. It shouldn’t matter whether the child is your sibling, a neighbour’s child, or a stranger.

Singer argues that we face a similar moral choice when we spend money on unnecessary luxury items instead of using it to help someone in need, for example, donating to charities that provide food and medical aid to people suffering from hunger and disease. This is true even if the person in need lives in a faraway country we will never visit. Is a new video game console, designer clothing, or an expensive meal more morally important than saving a human life (or many lives)?

Singer argues that if we can prevent harm to others without sacrificing something of comparable moral importance, we are morally obligated to do so. Singer's example illustrates this: if you can save a drowning child without risking your own safety, you should do so, even if it means getting your clothes muddy. Similarly, we should use our surplus income to prevent suffering and death from poverty, as failing to do so would be morally wrong.

The term "utilitarian" comes from the word "utility," which in this ethical context refers to the overall happiness, welfare, or well-being produced by an action. Utilitarianism, as an ethical theory, argues that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, typically defined as maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

This theory is grounded in the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number," meaning that in any given situation, the right action is the one that results in the highest net happiness or utility for the largest number of people. In the context of Peter Singer's argument, the utilitarian aspect is evident in the emphasis on reducing suffering and promoting well-being across boundaries, regardless of proximity or personal connection. His advocacy for redistributing resources to those in dire need—where they can have the greatest impact in alleviating suffering—illustrates a practical application of utilitarian principles, aiming to maximize the overall good or utility.

Cosmopolitan Arguments for Global Redistribution

Cosmopolitanism argues that principles of justice create a moral obligation to address the needs of the poor beyond national boundaries. Kwame Appiah suggests that our moral duties extend to all human beings, regardless of nationality, race, gender, or social class. Appiah argues that the moral significance of national borders is minimal regarding justice considerations. According to Appiah, cosmopolitanism is built on two core ideas: the intrinsic value of every human life and the recognition that we have obligations to others that transcend political and geographical boundaries. Appiah's work supports the notion that global redistribution is a moral imperative.

Contractarian Argument for Global Redistribution

Thomas Pogge offers another perspective, suggesting that we have a moral duty to address global poverty because we are partly responsible. Like Jason Hickel, he argues that the colonial destruction of local economies and societies has contributed to the current state of poverty. Pogge's contractarian approach argues that an economic system is morally unjust if it causes severe human rights deficits that could be avoided under a different, feasible institutional arrangement. He explains that the current global economic order perpetuates inequality and deprivation, and, as a result, we have a duty to reform it to prevent harm to others. Pogge's contractarian stance is rooted in the idea that justice is derived from a hypothetical social contract, where rational individuals would agree on principles of justice that ensure fair and equitable treatment for all, preventing systems that perpetuate harm.

Arguments Against Global Redistributive Justice

While cosmopolitanism advocates for global justice, communitarianism offers a contrasting perspective emphasizing the moral importance of community, culture, and national boundaries.

Communitarianism

Communitarianism stresses that our ethical obligations are primarily to those within our own community or nation and that individuals derive their values and identity from their communities. Local relationships are the foundation of moral duties in one's own community or nation, prioritizing local or national needs over global ones.

Communitarian thinkers argue that our strongest moral obligations are to our fellow citizens. For instance, political philosopher Michael Walzer contends that justice is best understood within the context of particular communities, which have their own shared understandings and social goods. As Walzer states in "Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality," “Justice is relative to social meanings,” meaning that ethical duties are shaped by the cultural and communal context in which they arise. In short, the ethical duty to help others is stronger within one's own national or cultural group than towards distant strangers.

Communitarianism focuses on the moral priority of local communities and national contexts, arguing for the importance of caring for those within one's own community or nation. However, there are several ways in which communitarianism might advocate for global redistribution:

  • Shared humanitarian values: Communitarians might argue that a particular community's values and social meanings include a commitment to humanitarian principles and global solidarity. If a community collectively values global justice and sees itself as part of a larger human community, it may support policies advocating global redistribution.
  • Global interdependence: A communitarian perspective can acknowledge the interconnectedness of modern societies. Recognizing that local well-being is often tied to global stability and prosperity, communitarians might support global redistribution to promote international peace and economic stability, which benefits their community.
  • Moral reciprocity: Some communitarian thinkers might invoke a sense of moral reciprocity, suggesting that communities have obligations to those in other parts of the world as a form of mutual respect and acknowledgment of shared humanity. This might lead to support for limited forms of global redistribution, particularly in cases of extreme poverty or humanitarian crises. While communitarianism emphasizes local values, it doesn't preclude the possibility that these local values could include commitments to universal human rights and ethical standards. 

However, it's important to note that traditional communitarianism does not typically advocate for global redistribution as a primary focus. The emphasis remains on the moral obligations within one's own community or nation.

While there are ways communitarianism might support global redistribution, it is not a central tenet of the philosophy. Instead, communitarians would more likely advocate for local solutions to inequality or poverty and investigate ways for a community that is experiencing development issues to address the social and economic issues themselves.

Libertarianism

Unlike cosmopolitanism and communitarianism, libertarians argue against any form of obligatory global redistribution. One of libertarian political philosophy’s foremost scholars was Robert Nozick, who championed individual rights to freedom and non-interference as the supreme moral goods in his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974). Libertarians place a high value on the right of individuals to acquire and retain private property. Consequently, they oppose any form of obligatory wealth redistribution, whether within a country or across international boundaries. Nozick argues that the mere existence of wealth inequality, even if extreme, does not necessarily indicate an injustice as long as the wealth was acquired through legitimate means. According to libertarians, individuals should be free to donate to the less fortunate if they choose. Still, there is no moral obligation to do so, nor should there be any state or institutional demand for such redistribution.

Libertarianism, at least to some degree, is based on the premise that we all start life at the same point, but do we?

Harvard political philosopher takes issue with this premise in his TED Talk and book, The Tyranny of Merit. Watch the video and complete the questions that follow.

Guiding Questions

  1. Explain what is at the heart of meritocracy or the meritocratic ideal.
  2. Why is meritocracy flawed?
  3. Explain how Sandel argues we need to re-think civic life in the context of: 
    • the role of college
    • the dignity of work
    • the meaning of success
  4. Why does Sandel argue that luck and humility in success are critical to the common good?

If you are interested in exploring Sandel's argument further, you might want to read this article.

 Teacher only box

Here are some suggested answers to the questions based on the Sandel TED Talk:

1. Explain what is at the heart of meritocracy or the meritocratic ideal.

At the heart of meritocracy is the belief that individuals succeed based on their talents, effort, and achievements. It suggests that everyone has an equal chance to rise through hard work and ability; therefore, the winners of society’s competitions deserve their rewards.

2. Why is meritocracy flawed?

Meritocracy is flawed because it assumes equal starting points and opportunities for all individuals, which is not the reality. In practice, children born into affluent families have significant advantages over those from poorer backgrounds. Additionally, meritocracy fosters a sense of hubris among the successful and humiliation among those who do not succeed, leading to social divisions and a lack of empathy for the less fortunate.

3. Explain how Sandel argues we need to re-think civic life in the context of:

  a. The role of college:

Sandel argues that the role of college should be rethought as the sole pathway to dignified work and a decent life. He suggests that creating an economy where a university degree is a prerequisite for success is problematic, given that a significant portion of the population does not have access to higher education. Instead, society should focus on valuing and improving the lives of those who contribute in essential ways without a college degree.

  b. The dignity of work:

Sandel emphasizes the importance of renewing the dignity of work, recognizing that work is not just about earning a living but also about contributing to the common good and gaining recognition. He argues that all forms of labour, including those often overlooked or undervalued, should be honoured and fairly compensated, reflecting their essential role in society.

  c. The meaning of success:

Sandel calls for a rethinking of the meaning of success, moving away from the notion that financial earnings are the sole measure of one’s contribution to the common good. He argues for a more inclusive understanding of success that values different kinds of contributions, particularly those that sustain and support the community.

4. Why does Sandel argue that luck and humility in success are critical to the common good?

Sandel argues that recognizing the role of luck in success fosters humility, which is essential for the common good. Acknowledging that success is not solely due to one’s efforts but also to fortunate circumstances helps mitigate the arrogance of the successful and the stigma faced by those who are less fortunate. This humility promotes empathy and solidarity, leading to a more generous and less divided society.

Global Aid in Practice

Despite these differing views, many international actors and institutions support the notion of universal human rights and argue that we have a duty to protect and assist people throughout the world. This belief underpinned the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals in 2002 and the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. Statements from various international bodies, like the UN General Assembly, often express that fighting poverty is a moral imperative and essential for global stability.

However, in practice, the lack of aid from developing countries suggests a limited adherence to these moral obligations. Aid is frequently viewed as an individual choice if funds are available. Similarly, aid is provided when it serves national interests or rewards allies.

Dimensions and Types of Development

Several factors impact development; they are:

  • economic
  • environmental
  • political
  • social
  • institutional

This section will examine the first four and explore institutional development elements as part of our next topic. 

While we will introduce these topics in isolation, it is important to remember that these categories and factors should not be understood as separate; many are interconnected. For example, consider implementing a large-scale renewable energy project like a solar power plant.

The economic impact of a solar power plant can impact several elements of development. Such projects provide jobs during construction and operation, enhancing local employment and stimulating economic growth. By generating renewable energy locally, these plants reduce the dependency on imported fuels, potentially lowering energy costs and improving energy security in the long term.

A solar power plant contributes positively to the environment by generating energy without emitting greenhouse gases, thus helping to mitigate climate change. Unlike traditional fossil fuel-based power sources, solar energy does not produce air pollutants once they are in operation, benefiting ecosystems and human health.

Political support is crucial for the success of renewable energy initiatives. Governments can foster the adoption of technologies like solar power through policies and incentives such as subsidies, tax benefits, and grants. Aligning such projects with national and international environmental commitments, like those outlined in the Paris Agreement, also enhances political backing.

Social factors significantly influence the development and acceptance of a solar power plant. Engaging with the community is essential to address any concerns and ensure that the project's benefits, such as improved air quality and new job opportunities, are well understood and appreciated by local residents. Effective communication is key to navigating social dynamics and ensuring the project's smooth implementation.

Finally, the institutional framework involves regulations, norms, and organizations that support the execution of such projects. Institutions like energy regulators, environmental agencies, and planning authorities play critical roles in ensuring that the project adheres to local and national regulations, facilitates the integration of renewable energy into the grid, and maintains safety and performance standards.

Political Factors Impacting Development

Political factors greatly influence a country's development. These factors include the country's political beliefs, history, current conflicts, how stable and transparent the government is, and how well it enforces laws. Decisions about where to send aid, the overall political atmosphere, how government offices operate, and the interests of powerful groups also play a key role in shaping political development.

Political Instability

Political instability can severely hinder development. Countries experiencing political turmoil often struggle to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) because companies hesitate to invest in uncertain environments. For example, businesses are unlikely to establish operations in countries with a risk of sudden government changes or nationalizing their investments. Venezuela's political turmoil, characterized by disputes over presidential legitimacy and economic policies, has led to significant economic contraction and humanitarian crises. The political uncertainty has driven away foreign investment and crippled the oil industry, which is vital for the country's economy. Moreover, the political climate has led to widespread human rights violations and a mass exodus of citizens seeking better living conditions abroad, further depleting the country's human capital.

In addition, following the military coup in February 2021, Myanmar has faced increased political instability, which has resulted in severe economic repercussions and human rights abuses. The takeover disrupted foreign investment and international aid, which is important for development projects. The ongoing conflict between the military and various ethnic and civilian groups has led to massive displacement and a humanitarian crisis, significantly setting back development efforts.

Political Ideologies

Political ideologies significantly influence how governments allocate resources, which impacts a country's development. Consider the examples of Cuba and Singapore, which are shaped by distinctly different political philosophies.

Cuba, governed under Marxist principles, prioritizes state control over economic and social life. This ideological approach leads to substantial investments and development in healthcare and education. However, the commitment to state control also limits economic freedoms and private enterprise, constraining economic growth and technological advancement.

On the other hand, Singapore's government values pragmatism, meritocracy, and efficient governance. This approach facilitates strategic resource allocation, attracting significant foreign investment and fostering a highly competitive economic environment. As a result, Singapore consistently achieves high levels of development, which is evident in its strong performance on various global development indices.

Corruption

Corruption significantly impacts development, which stems from weak legal systems, underfunded public sector organizations, and government complicity that can often foster environments conducive to corruption.

Transparency International categorizes corruption into several types, including high-level, petty and political corruption, with each affecting development differently. High-level or grand corruption involves major government officials engaging in practices that distort policies and crucial state functions for personal gain. An example is the 1MDB scandal in Malaysia, where billions of dollars were misappropriated, leading to massive financial and political fallout that compromised the country’s economic stability.

Petty corruption is seen in the daily interactions between lower-level public officials and ordinary citizens. Corruption may be prevalent in traffic police departments across various countries, where officers might demand bribes to overlook minor traffic violations. Such practices erode public trust in law enforcement and undermine the rule of law.

Political corruption includes manipulating policies and institutions by political leaders to maintain their power and wealth. In Zimbabwe, allegations of vote manipulation and intimidation during elections have distorted the democratic process and hindered effective governance.

Democratization

A significant aspect of political development is democratization, which involves moving towards greater democracy and governmental accountability and increasing respect for and protection of human rights. For example, the European Union has invested heavily in supporting democratic transitions in Eastern European countries like Ukraine, aiming to foster democratic governance, combat corruption, and support the rule of law.

However, the relationship between democracy and development is complex and debatable. Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson's work in "Why Nations Fail" explores the impact of a state's institutions on its development trajectory. They argue that inclusive institutions, often associated with democratic systems, are crucial for sustainable development. These institutions enable widespread participation in economic activities, ensuring power and prosperity are not confined to a select few. This broad-based empowerment encourages innovation, economic growth, and equitable resource distribution. In contrast, they claim that exclusive institutions, commonly found in authoritarian regimes, limit economic and political participation to an elite group, leading to inefficient resource allocation, corruption, and economic stagnation.

Nevertheless, Lee Kuan Yew, the former Prime Minister of Singapore, offers a different perspective on authoritarian governance's effectiveness under specific conditions. In the case of Lee, authoritative control expedited Singapore's development. Under Lee's rule, Singapore grew into a global economic powerhouse. He believed that strong, decisive leadership and the ability to implement long-term policies without the interference of electoral politics or populist pressures were key to Singapore’s rapid growth. Lee argued that when executed with a clear vision and strict governance standards, authoritarian governance could effectively mobilize resources, enforce policies, and maintain necessary stability, particularly during a state's developmental stages.

This juxtaposition underscores a core debate in development studies: the balance between the potential short-term efficiency of authoritarian governance and the long-term benefits of democratic, inclusive institutions. 

Respect for and Protection of Human Rights

Respecting and protecting human rights is a fundamental element of political development. The UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights argues that development is a human right. According to the UN Declaration on the right to development, everyone is entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural, and political development.

Overseas development aid is often linked to the recipient state's human rights record, a concept referred to as the Aid Conditionality Hypothesis. For instance, the European Union has tied its aid to states like Myanmar to enhancements in human rights practices. Similarly, Sweden's International Development Cooperation Agency focuses on human rights and democracy in its aid policies. It is suggested that stronger institutions, resulting from respect for human rights, might contribute to more positive development outcomes and more efficient aid utilization.

Political factors such as instability, ideologies, corruption, democratization, and human rights impact development. Understanding these factors and their interplay is important when developing effective policies and strategies to promote sustainable development.

Social Factors Impacting Development

Social development is deeply tied to human rights issues, power dynamics, inequality, and the pursuit of greater equality among individuals and groups within societies. It involves strategically shaping institutions and policies to address these concerns effectively. Social factors impact development, including values, culture, tradition, gender relations, and migration. These factors are complex and often difficult to measure, but their influence on development is significant.

Values, Culture, and Tradition

Values, culture, and tradition significantly influence development, shaping how societies approach economic growth, social cohesion, and environmental stewardship. While challenging to quantify, these elements provide a framework for understanding societal behaviours and priorities. Cultural heritage can offer traditional knowledge and practices that address contemporary challenges, such as sustainable agriculture and community-based resource management.

Cultural activities also have the potential to drive economic growth. South Korea’s success in exporting its cultural products, including K-pop, films, and television dramas, is a prime example. In 2020, these cultural exports generated approximately $10 billion, highlighting the substantial economic impact of the cultural industry. This cultural influence boosts the economy and enhances national prestige and soft power on the global stage.

Values and traditions also shape social development. For instance, in Ghana, communal values emphasize collective well-being and social support systems, which can complement formal social safety nets. However, in highly individualistic cultures like the United States, there is a strong focus on innovation and personal achievement, driving economic competitiveness but sometimes at the expense of social cohesion.

Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination significantly impacts development. Economically, excluding women from the workforce means that half of the population's potential is not fully utilized. In Saudi Arabia, legal restrictions and social norms have historically limited women's employment opportunities, though recent reforms are beginning to change this.

Women's contributions to development are frequently unrecognized. Globally, women perform the majority of unpaid domestic labour and childcare, which is essential for societal development but often invisible in official statistics. The World Bank's "Gender Equality and Development" report highlights four gaps that need addressing to close the gender gap:

  • Human capital: Ensuring access to education and healthcare.
  • Economic productivity: Addressing barriers that reduce women's economic opportunities.
  • Access to finance: Improving women's access to financial resources.
  • Empowerment: Enhancing women's roles in decision-making and leadership.

For example, in rural India, many girls are pulled out of school to help with household chores, limiting their education and future economic opportunities. Additionally, female entrepreneurs in many countries face challenges in accessing credit and financial services, which hampers their business potential.

Migration

Migration is another social factor with a complex impact on development. While often viewed negatively in receiving countries, migration can have significant positive effects. 

Douglas Massey has conducted extensive research into how migration affects both the countries migrants leave and the ones they move to. He argues that migrants often occupy essential roles within host countries' labour markets that might remain unfilled due to skill gaps or local disinterest in certain jobs. Furthermore, Massey explains the entrepreneurial impact migrants have in that they frequently start new businesses, contributing to economic diversification and job creation. Culturally, migrants enrich the societies they join by introducing diverse perspectives and practices, which can lead to greater cultural understanding within the host society. Massey's work demonstrates that while migration can introduce challenges, it also brings economic and cultural benefits that contribute to social development.

However, Massey also points out potential drawbacks, including the 'brain drain' phenomenon, where the emigration of highly skilled individuals can deplete the human capital of the home countries. In the host countries, rapid influxes of migrants might strain local resources and infrastructure, leading to possible social tensions. Additionally, migrants often face integration challenges, encountering barriers to employment and social services, which can foster socioeconomic disparities and social exclusion.

Economic Factors Impacting Development

Economic development remains a central concern for policymakers and political leaders across the world. It impacts state and non-state actors in our increasingly globalized and interdependent world. This is evident in how countries are categorized by their level of development, with economic indicators like GDP per capita playing a significant role.

Economic development can be understood in two main ways: economic growth and wealth and income distribution. Economic development is shaped by several factors, including:

  • Access to resources
  • Infrastructure development
  • Debt management
  • Access to capital and credit
  • Trade, aid, and investment policies
  • Influence of vested interests and the informal economy

Access to Resources

The availability and accessibility of natural resources such as minerals, energy, water, and arable land are crucial for a country's economic development. If these resources are efficiently extracted and managed, they can be direct sources of economic wealth. Countries with abundant resources can use them to fuel domestic industries or generate revenue through exports.

For example, Canada has extensive natural resources, including the third largest oil reserves in the world and significant mineral resources. This abundance has positioned Canada as a global leader in resource exports, significantly boosting its GDP and providing substantial employment opportunities across its mining and energy sectors.

However, while these natural resources have fueled economic growth, dependence on exports, especially oil and minerals, has made the economy vulnerable to volatility in global commodity prices. Additionally, resource extraction has led to environmental degradation and conflicts with Indigenous communities over land rights and resource management.

Infrastructure

Infrastructure such as roads, bridges, airports, telecommunications, and utilities is fundamental for economic activity. Good infrastructure enhances productivity, connects markets, supports supply chains, and attracts foreign investment by reducing operational costs and improving efficiency.

For example, China’s massive Belt and Road Initiative, launched in 2013, aims to boost trade and stimulate economic growth across Asia and beyond by developing trade routes and infrastructure projects. This initiative has led to the construction of roads, railways, and ports, enhancing connectivity and economic integration with multiple countries.

However, the initiative has been accused of leading to debt dependency in participating countries, often called "debt-trap diplomacy." Debt-trap diplomacy refers to a situation where a state extends excessive credit to another state, often for large infrastructure projects, with the strategic intent of extracting economic or political concessions when the debtor state struggles to meet its repayment obligations. Additionally, some projects have sparked environmental and social concerns in host countries due to inadequate assessments and a lack of consideration for local impacts.

Debt Management

Proper debt management, both public and private, is vital for economic stability. Effective debt management ensures that countries can fund development projects and maintain public services without facing financial crises or excessive interest payments that can stifle economic growth.

For example, Jamaica has struggled with high public debt levels, which consumed a large portion of its GDP in debt service payments, limiting public investment. Recent reforms and better debt management under IMF programs have helped reduce the debt-to-GDP ratio, allocating more resources to developmental projects and social programs.

Although the country has made strides in reducing its debt-to-GDP ratio with the help of international financial institutions, these improvements have often come at the cost of stringent austerity measures. These measures have constrained public spending in crucial areas like health and education, sometimes sparking public discontent and raising questions about the long-term sustainability of economic growth. 

Access to Capital and Credit

Access to finance is essential for businesses to start, grow, and innovate. Well-functioning financial markets that provide diverse options for credit and capital can empower entrepreneurs, support small businesses, and fuel large corporate investments.

For example, South Korea's transformation into a high-tech economy was significantly supported by its development of robust financial institutions that provided loans to large conglomerates and small and medium enterprises. While this development of South Korea's financial sector to support industrial expansion has been successful, it has also been criticized for fostering income inequality. The emphasis on supporting chaebols (large family-owned business conglomerates) has often overshadowed the needs of smaller enterprises and startups. This focus can stifle broader entrepreneurial activity and contribute to economic disparities.

Trade, Aid, and Investment Policies

Open trade policies, effective aid management, and favourable conditions for foreign direct investment are critical for integrating into the global economy. These factors can help countries access new markets, modern technologies, and foreign capital necessary for development. The European Union’s single market is a prime example of how member states benefit from removing trade barriers, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labour. This integration has significantly boosted the region's economic growth and job creation by enhancing market access and economic cooperation among member states. 

However, the EU's single market has also led to economic disparities within the Union. Wealthier countries benefit more than economically weaker ones, creating an imbalance. This disparity has sometimes fueled economic and political tensions, challenging the region's cohesion and equitable development. The uneven distribution of benefits highlights the need for policies supporting weaker economies' development to ensure more balanced growth within the Union.

Influence of Vested Interests and the Informal Economy

Vested interests can skew economic policies towards certain groups, potentially leading to corruption and inefficiency. Similarly, while providing livelihoods, the informal economy often escapes government regulation and taxation, affecting public revenue and fair labour practices.

In Brazil, vested interests have historically influenced land use policies in the Amazon rainforest, leading to deforestation and illegal land grabs. Powerful agricultural and logging lobbies have pushed for policies prioritizing short-term economic gains over environmental protection, resulting in significant ecological damage. Additionally, Brazil’s informal economy plays a large role in the overall economy, with a significant portion of the workforce employed in informal jobs. This prevalence of informal employment complicates efforts to expand social services and enforce labour laws, as these workers often do not contribute to tax revenues and lack legal protections and benefits.

This influence of vested interests in policy-making, particularly regarding land use in the Amazon, has contributed to unsustainable practices like deforestation. Moreover, while providing essential income for many, the large informal economy limits tax revenue and prevents workers from accessing social security benefits, perpetuating poverty and inequality cycles.

Environmental Factors Impacting Development

When examining the impact of environmental factors on development, it is important to consider both immediate and long-term consequences. These factors include geographic location, natural resource availability, and broader environmental changes such as climate change and rising sea levels.

Immediate Environmental Impacts

Large infrastructure projects can significantly impact the environment. For example, Brazil's decision to build the Belo Monte Dam on the Xingu River has raised concerns about its impact on the Amazon rainforest and indigenous communities. The project has led to deforestation and displacement of local populations, illustrating the potential environmental and social costs of such developments.

While beneficial for connectivity, infrastructure development can also harm local populations. For example, constructing a major highway may improve transportation between regions. Still, it can increase noise and air pollution for those living along the route, impacting their quality of life. An example is the construction of the Lagos-Ibadan Expressway in Nigeria, which has caused significant disruption to communities along its path.

Geographic Location and Natural Resources

Landlocked countries without direct access to the world's oceans face unique challenges. These countries often struggle with higher transportation costs and logistical inefficiencies due to their reliance on neighbouring countries to access ports. For example, landlocked in South America, Bolivia faces significant challenges in exporting its goods, relying heavily on the ports of Chile and Peru.

Landlocked countries also depend on their neighbours for infrastructure, political relations, and internal stability. Any disruption in these areas can severely impact their development. While some landlocked countries like Austria and Switzerland are highly developed, many others, particularly in Africa and Asia, are among the world's least developed due to these geographical constraints.

Resource endowment is another significant factor. Countries rich in natural resources, like Australia with its vast mineral resources or Norway with its oil reserves, can leverage these resources for economic growth. For instance, Australia's mining industry contributes significantly to its GDP and export earnings.

However, the presence of natural resources does not always guarantee development. Venezuela, despite having some of the largest oil reserves in the world, faces severe economic challenges and underdevelopment. This paradox, known as the "resource curse," suggests that countries with abundant natural resources may also experience poorer development outcomes due to corruption, poor governance, and ineffective institutions.

Long-Term Environmental Changes

Climate change poses a significant threat to development. Rising sea levels endanger low-lying countries and coastal communities. For example, with its extensive river delta, Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to rising sea levels, which could lead to the loss of arable land and increased flooding.

Global warming also exacerbates flooding and drought, which can displace populations, increase poverty and hunger, and strain access to essential services such as healthcare and education. The UN's Sustainable Development Goal 13 highlights these challenges, noting how climate change can expand inequalities and provoke conflicts over scarce resources.

Many wealthy countries' historical development paths involved significant environmental degradation through fossil fuel use and deforestation. Today, developing countries are often advised to avoid these environmentally harmful practices even though these methods contribute to the wealth of developed nations.

Finally, rising living standards can lead to increased environmental impact. For instance, as China's middle class grows, car ownership has significantly increased, contributing to higher carbon emissions and air pollution.

    Sources:

    • Global Politics for the IB Diploma by Fugill, Hirons and Hull
    • Introduction to International Development by Haslam, Schafer and Beaudet
    • Introduction to Global Politics by Lamy et al. 

      Applying Your Knowledge / Global Politics in Action / Checking for Understanding

      Using this CFR Backgrounder as a starting point, apply what you have learned about the role of political, social, economic and environmental factors in development. Create a chart or diagram explaining how each factor plays a role in Haiti's struggle to develop. Refer to some of the specific aspects of each that we explored above and provide precise examples from Haiti. Note: you will need to research beyond what is in the backgrounder, and if you can access The Economist, you might find this article helpful.

      Once you have completed this part of the task, propose one policy that could positively affect the issues that Haiti is facing in each of the four development areas of political, social, economic and environmental factors.

       

      All materials on this website are for the exclusive use of teachers and students at subscribing schools for the period of their subscription. Any unauthorised copying or posting of materials on other websites is an infringement of our copyright and could result in your account being blocked and legal action being taken against you.